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Pendahuluan
1. Pemecahan batu dengan pick
Direction of cutting
Perekahan Awal
Hipotesis Griffith berguna untuk menjelaskan kriteria inisiasi fraktur.
Kebanyakan material pada kondisi tertentu menunjukkan proses
tertentu untuk propagasi fraktur, & strength failure-nya tdk dapat
diperkirakan dari kriteria inisiasi fraktur.
keruntuhan total inisiasi fraktur dalam kondisi kompresi.
Karena sebuah rekahan tdk akan propagasi di dalam bidangnya,
seperti halnya yang terjadi dalam kondisi tarik
Stabilisasi sebuah propagasi fraktur bisa terjadi dalam kondisi2
tegangan. Maka, kriteria insisiasi fraktur tidak dapat dipakai untuk
menduga UCS batuan.
10
1 3
1 3
8 t
11
4 t
3
3
2
1
1 1
1
1
12
1 3
1
1
c
2
13
Kriteria Griffith dpt juga diturunkan dari energy balance for a pre-existing (Griffith)
crack. Konsep asli Griffith hypotheses didasarkan pada kondisi bahwa energy (W) yg
digunakan pada pembebanan struktur diseimbangkan oleh elastic strain energy (We)
yang disiimpan didalam struktur itu sendiri dan surface energy (Ws) pada permukaan
bebasnya pre-existing crack sehingga
W = We + Ws
Bila beban bertambah, kenaikan dW dalam applied energy (W) diseimbangkan oleh
(a) kenaikan dWe dlm strain energy (We) saja atau (b) kenaikan dWs dlm crack Ws
saja atau (c) sebagian oleh kenaikan dWe & sebagian kenaikan dWs.
Kasus pertama (dW = dWe, dWs = 0) rekahan tidak memanjang. Pada kedua kasus
lainnya (dWs 0) energi rekahan permukaan hanya dapat menaik jika rekahannya
memanjang, yaitu setengah panjang rekahan awal dari c menjadi (c + dc).
dW dWe dWs
dc
dc
dc
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E
2
2 E
IN
c
Persamaan diatas merupakan hasil diferensiasi kedua persamaan
sebelumnya terhadap c & substitusi.
Persamaan tersebut adalah kriteria mulainya crack extension (fracture
initiation).
< IN
> IN
Fracture Propagation
Although stress to start crack growth can be calculated from Griffith theory, the
subsequent history of growing cracks is not given by the theory (Brace &
Bombalakis, 1962). For uniaxial tension the subsequent history is fairly obvious,
whereas in compression it is not.
Wells & Post (1958): in tension, a single crack will grow by lengthening in the
direction of its long axis and it will enlarge continuously until a free surface is
reached. The growing critical crack in compression curves out of the direction of
its initial long axis, approaches the direction of compression, and finally stops
after having travelled the distance of a few crack lengths or less (Brace &
Bombalakis, 1962).
a.the beginning of an echelon action adjacent microcracks producing a zone of increased shear
compliance
b.b. the idealised spread of the compliance zone across the part resulting in a shear fault
18
The relationship for the stable propagation of brittle fracture of metals was
proposed by Irwin (1960),
= {GE/-c}
When a critical condition occurs around the crack, and to result in the
extension of this crack in its own plane, then the ability of a body containing
this crack to resist load would diminish with continued crack growth. This
situation is unstable fracture propagation, this happens very fast and can
not be ceased although the load is removed. Thus, the conditions become
unstable when the energy released per-unit crack surface (G) attains a
critical value (Gc), which is a characteristics property of the material.
c = {GcE/-cc}
According to the energy balance concept from Griffith, the movement of the
faces of the extending crack requires an amount of elastic strain energy
transformed into kinetic energy (Wk). Thus, the equation of energy balance
concept can be rewritten as follows,
dc
dc
dc
19
Jaeger & Cook (1976) suggest the kinetic energy dissipated during
crack extension from crack length c to ci, under an applied tension
(ti) remain constant including the surface energy of the crack (4ac i)
can be calculated using the following,
c
c
c 2 2 (1 i )[1 (n 1) i ]
c
c
Wk =
E
n = (4aE/ciTi2)
kc 2c2 2
Wk =
2E 2
k = a constant proportionality factor
c = crack-half length
= applied stress
= density of material
c = crack velocity
E = modulus of elasticity
20
21
xy
(1 )E
(1 )(1 2 )
E
(1 )(1 2 )
E
(1 )(1 2 )
(1 )E
(1 )(1 2 )
x
y
xy
2(1 )
22
23
Vc2
2E
c
c
(1 i )[1 (n 1) i ]
k
c
c
1
2
1 x 1 = 2 x 2
25
All tools behave in an essentially similar way, albeit with different degrees of efficiency.
They create a fracture surface in the rock by concentrating sufficient strain energy at a
point in the rock to satisfy the fracture surfaces formed beneath that point (Farmer, 1986).
The strain energy available to fracture the rock will be equal to { x (DV/V)}/volume of rock
or (2 /E) in linear terms. This can be related to the energy input of the rock face from the
cutting machine which can be expressed as the cutting energy per unit volume of rock
excavated or,
Q = production m3/hr
Volume excavation rate is directly proportional to the energy input and inversely
proportional to the rock fracture toughness. If the modulus is high in relation to strength,
the rock is brittle and a proportionately lower strain energy level will be required to fracture
the rock.
27
1.00
chalks, brittle
weak rocks, weak
limestone, sandstones
0.75
Effi cient cutting stiff machine
water jet assisted
0.50
0.25
0.00
4 kW
2 kW
1 kW
0
20
40
60
PRODUC TION (BC M/Hr)
80
28
Remarks
Ferruginuous cement
Clay cement
10
30
Application of Roadheaders
(McFeat-Smith, 1978)
Upper values of laboratory SE
that machines can cut (MJ/m3)
Heavy weight
machines
Medium weight
machines
20
Machines can only cut these rocks at economic rates if they occur in
thin beds (less than 0.3 m). Specialist advice should be obtained and
modification for cutting hard rock may help.
25
15
20
12
32
17
31
WR = W {(1/P) - (1/F)}
WR = the energy required to comminute a unit volume of solid rock, or a unit rock
mass, from a nominal feed size F to a nominal product size P.
W = a constant, relating the surface energy of fragments to their normal size, times
the comminution efficiency.
This law has been criticised on theoretical grounds, because the energy
absorbed in comminution is many orders of magnitude greater than the increase
in true surface energy, and on practical grounds, because the actual energy
requirements for fine grinding are less than those indicated by it.
32
33
P & F are the size of aperture in microns through which 80% of the product
and feed will pass, respectively, and Wi is the work index.
34
100000
1
I
10000
2
3
1000
II
III
11
100
*
10
10
0.1
10
100
1000
35
/SE
SIZE (mm)
0.25
Dust
1.00
2.00
25
3.00
50-75
8.00
125
20.00
300
36
100
10
2
1
3
0.1
0.003
0.02
0.1
1
SPEC IFIC POWER - MW/m2
10
100
A comparison of the characteristics of various devices for breaking rock showing the
relationship between that rate of excavation, the specific power and the specific energy.
(1) Percussive drills (small); (2) Rotary drills; (3) Drill & blast tunnelling; (4) Raise-tunnel
boring machine; Flame jets (after Jaeger & Cook, 1976).
37