Major & Minor Losses

Under Supervision of:

Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Fouad

By students:
Mahmoud Bakr 533
Moaz Emad
619

Mohammed Abdullah 511

Mohammed Nabil Abbas
525

Applications

How big does the

pipe have to be to
carry a flow of x
m3/s?

Bernoulli's Equation
The basic approach to all piping systems is to
write the Bernoulli equation between two
points, connected by a streamline, where the
conditions are known. For example, between
. the surface of a reservoir and a pipe outlet
The total head at point 0 must match with the
total head at point 1, adjusted for any increase
in head due to pumps, losses due to pipe
friction and so-called "minor losses" due to
entries, exits, fittings, etc. Pump head
developed is generally a function of the flow
through the system

Bernoulli's Equation

Friction Losses in Pipes

Friction losses are a complex function of the

system geometry, the fluid properties and the

flow rate in the system. By observation, the head
loss is roughly proportional to the square of the
flow rate in most engineering flows (fully
developed, turbulent pipe flow). This observation
leads to the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head
loss due to friction

For laminar flow, the head loss is proportional to

velocity rather than velocity squared, thus the

friction factor is inversely proportional to velocity

Turbulent flow
For turbulent flow, Colebrook (1939) found an

implicit correlation for the friction factor in

round pipes. This correlation converges well in
few iterations. Convergence can be optimized
by slight under-relaxation.

The familiar Moody Diagram is a log-log plot of the

Colebrook correlation on axes of friction factor and
Reynolds number, combined with the f=64/Re result
from laminar flow. The plot below was produced in an
Excel spreadsheet

An explicit approximation

Pipe roughness
pipe material
glass, drawn brass, copper
commercial steel or wrought iron
asphalted cast iron
galvanized iron
cast iron
concrete
rivet steel
corrugated metal
PVC

pipe roughness (mm)

0.0015
0.045

0.12
d Must be
0.15 dimensionless!
0.26
0.18-0.6
0.9-9.0
45
0.12

Calculating Head Loss for a

Known Flow
From Q and piping determine Reynolds

Number, relative roughness and thus the

friction factor. Substitute into the DarcyWeisbach equation to obtain head loss for the
given flow. Substitute into the Bernoulli
equation to find the necessary elevation or
pump head

Calculating Flow for a

Known Head

Obtain the allowable head loss from the Bernoulli

equation, then start by guessing a friction
factor. (0.02 is a good guess if you have nothing
better.) Calculate the velocity from the DarcyWeisbach equation. From this velocity and the
piping characteristics, calculate Reynolds
Number, relative roughness and thus friction
. factor
Repeat the calculation with the new friction factor
until sufficient convergence is obtained. Q = VA

"Minor Losses"
Although they often account for a major portion of the head
loss, especially in process piping, the additional losses due
to entries and exits, fittings and valves are traditionally
referred to as minor losses. These losses represent
additional energy dissipation in the flow, usually caused
by secondary flows induced by curvature or recirculation.
The minor losses are any head loss present in addition to
. the head loss for the same length of straight pipe
Like pipe friction, these losses are roughly proportional to
the square of the flow rate. Defining K, the loss coefficient,
by

. K is the sum of all of the loss coefficients in

the length of pipe, each contributing to the

overall head loss
Although K appears to be a constant

coefficient, it varies with different flow

conditions
:Factors affecting the value of K include
.,the exact geometry of the component
.the flow Reynolds number , etc

Some types of minor losses

Head Loss due to Gradual Expansion
(Diffuser)
2

V1 V2
hE K E

V
hE K E

2g
2
2

KE

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

2g

A2
1
A1

20
40
60
80
diffusor angle ()

Sudden Contraction
1

hc
1
C

V22
2g

V2

V1
flow separation

Ac
losses are reduced with a gradual contraction
Cc

A2

Sudden Contraction

Cc

1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

A2/A1

Qorifice CAorifice 2 gh

0.8

Entrance Losses
Losses can be
K e 1.0
reduced by
accelerating the
flow gradually
K e 0.5
and eliminating
the
vena contracta
K e 0.04

he K e

V2
2g

Head Loss in High

Bends
pressure
Head loss is a function

of the ratio of the bend

radius to the pipe
diameter (R/D)
Velocity distribution
returns to normal
several pipe diameters
downstream

Possible
separation
from wall

D
Low pressure

hb K b

Kb varies from 0.6 - 0.9

V2
2g

Head Loss in Valves

Function of valve type and

valve position
The complex flow path
through valves can result in
high head loss (of course,
one of the purposes of a
valve is to create head loss
when it is not fully open)

hv K v

V2
2g

To calculate losses in piping systems with

both pipe friction and minor losses use

Solution Techniques
Neglect minor losses
Equivalent pipe lengths
Iterative Techniques
Simultaneous Equations
Pipe Network Software

Iterative Techniques for D

and
Q
(given
total
head
Assume all head loss is major head loss.
loss)
Calculate D or Q using Swamee-Jain equations
Calculate minor losses
Find new major losses by subtracting minor

losses from total head loss

Solution Technique: Head

Loss
Can be solved directly
hminor K
Re

4Q

hminor K

2g
f

8Q 2
g 2 D 4

0.25

5.74

log

3.7 D Re 0.9

hl h f hminor

hf f

LQ 2

g 2 D 5

Solution Technique:
Discharge
or
Pipe
Diameter

Iterative technique
Set up simultaneous equations in Excel

Re

4Q

hminor K

0.25

5.74

log

0.9
3.7 D Re

8Q 2
g 2 D 4

hl h f hminor

hf f

LQ 2

g 2 D 5

Use goal seek or Solver to

find discharge that makes the
calculated head loss equal
the given head loss.

Example: Minor and Major

Find the maximum dependable flow between the
Losses

reservoirs for a water temperature range of 4C to

20C.

Water

25 m elevation difference in reservoir water levels

Reentrant pipes at reservoirs
Standard elbows

2500 m of 8 PVC pipe

1500 m of 6 PVC pipe

Sudden contraction
Gate valve wide open

Directions
Assume fully turbulent (rough pipe law)
find f from Moody (or from von Karman)
Find total head loss
Solve for Q using symbols (must include

minor losses) (no iteration required)

Obtain values for minor losses from notes or
text

Example (Continued)
What are the Reynolds number in the two

pipes?
Where are we on the Moody Diagram?
What value of K would the valve have to
produce to reduce the discharge by 50%?
What is the effect of temperature?
Why is the effect of temperature so small?

Example (Continued)
Were the minor losses negligible?
Accuracy of head loss calculations?
What happens if the roughness increases by a

factor of 10?
If you needed to increase the flow by 30%
what could you do?
Suppose I changed 6 pipe, what is minimum
diameter needed?