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And there was trembling in the host, in the field and among all the people.
The garrison and the spoilers also trembled and the earth quaked, so it was
a very great trembling
What is seismology ?
The word seismology originates from the Greek language:
Seismos
Logos
earthquake
science
SEISMOLOGY
The science of elastic (seismic) waves
1. EXPLORATION SEISMOLOGY
- Search for economically significant resources,
eg oil, coal, minerals, etc
2. ENGINERING SEISMOLOGY
-Depth to bedrock, sink holes, dams, runways,
and other construction applications
3. TECTONIC SEISMOLOGY
- Study of earthquakes, volcano's, plate movements etc
4. MILITARY SEISMOLOGY
- Detection of submarines, nuclear explosions
5. MINE SEISMOLOGY
- Study of mine induced seismicity
Xhosas believed that there is a snake under the ground and that
when it moves the earth shakes
The western world had Atlas with the world on his shoulders, every time
he moved the earth shook
The Indians believed that an elephant carries the world on his back and
that every time it went for a wee the earth shook
The Japanese believed in a large cat fish under the ground who
shook the whole earth and a small cat fish that caused the after shakes
INDUCED SEISMICITY
Date
Magnitude
Place
13/03/1989
ML = 5.6
23/06/1975
ML = 5.2
As above
07/04/1977
ML = 5.2
24/03/1977
ML = 4.5
March 2005
MONITORING
1908
1910
1920
1939
----------------------------------------------1970
7 stations 1970
20 stations 1978
24 stations 1981
29 stations 1988
ML = 1.45log D + 0.12
ML = 1.45Log D + 0.12
D duration
PROBLEMS
Magnitude 4.6
TOTAL CLOSURE
WITH F/W HEAVE
1. MAGNITUDE CONCEPT
2. SEISMIC MOMENT
3. SEISMIC ENERGY
4. STRESS ESTIMATES
Today with the modern digital seismic networks the magnitude is calculated
only after the seismic moment and energy are calculated in the process of
spectral analysis.
For example the PMC local magnitude is calculated from the following formulae:
ML = 0.272log E + 0.392logMo - 4.63
Single event
The Council for Geosciences runs the National South African Seismic Network.
Their magnitudes are based on the maximum recorded amplitude.
The formulae used to calculate this magnitude is:
ML = log (A) + 1.11LogD +0.00189D -2.09
Where:
A- maximum recorded amplitude on a seismogram after applying a
correction for the instrument in nanometers (10E- 09 m)
D hipocentral distance in km
PMC
magnitude
Spectral analysis has become a standard technique used to estimate the source
parameters of seismic events recorded by mine digital seismic networks.
Simple source models of circular dislocations are used for the interpretation of
seismic spectra and for the purpose of deriving source parameters.
Seismic moment, corner frequency and seismic energy are inverted from
the spectra that are corrected for:
the instrumental, distance and attenuation effects of each
waveform and then averaged.
Seismogram
In case of the spectral analysis the seismic moment is calculated from the
following relation:
Mo = (4oco3RCo)/(FcRcSc)
Where: o is the density of source material
co is either P-wave velocity or the S-wave velocity at the source
Rc is the distance between the source and the receiver
c is the low frequency level, this is a spectral parameter
Fc accounts for the radiation of either P or S waves
Cc accounts for the free-surface amplification of either P or S wave
amplitudes
Sc is the site correction for either P or S waves
E [J]
Magnitude
1.6
For 1 second
6.8
8.7
Released energy
[J]
Remarks
1kg
-1.9
90
U/g explosion
1 ton
0.2
1.3E+05
U/g explosion
1 kt
2.3
1.8E+08
U/g explosion
20 kt
3.2
4.0E+11
U/g explosion
20kt = atom bomb dropped at Hiroshima
20 kt
2.1
8.9E+07
1.0 Mt
4.5
3.5E+11
U/g explosion
2.0Mt
4.6
5.0E+11
U/ g explosion
5.0Mt
5.0
2.0E+12
U/ g explosion
10Mt
5.2
4.0E+12
U/ g explosion
Largest recorded U/g event in underground
mine
100Mt
5.9
4.5E+20
U/ g explosion
1000Mt
6.6
5.0E+21
U/ g explosion
Exploded amount of
TNT
Date
Time
XYZ
Magnitude
Moment
Energy
Stress drop
Date 27/02/2004
X=23931
Y=-12717
Z=-500m
Magnitude 2.0
Energy = 1.25E+07 J
Moment =7.9E+11 Nm
Stress = 0.9 MPa
a
Mic
Dykes
Fau
lt
ult
a
F
est
w
h
t
Sou
Ce
n tr
al F
aul
t
Date
24/2/2004
Time
23:15:55
-Z
Error
Mag
Mo
No of
Stations
23865 13014
258
38
1.90E+07
8.80E+11
23871 12526
787
16
2.1
3.90E+07
1.00E+12
23873 12534
788
16
2.10E+07
9.00E+11
23882 12589
723
28
2.1
4.00E+07
9.40E+11
23929 12632
652
33
2.1
4.60E+07
9.20E+11
24108 12678
545
42
2.1
3.70E+07
1.00E+11
24028 12643
581
40
2.1
3.00E+07
9.70E+11
23997 12722
508
44
2.1
2.00E+07
9.80E+11
10
23931 12717
500
46
1.40E+07
7.40E+11
11
-Y
No 3
10
11
No 3
10
11
No
10
11
X coordinate
No
10
11
Y coordinate
No
10
11
Z
Z [m]
10
11
4 years of data
No of
events
Cumulative energy
[J]
Cumulative moment
[Nm]
9.2.1
1662
1.10E+07 (100%)
2.05E+12
(100%)
10.1.3
1662
7.39E+05
(7%)
2.64E+13
(1287%)
135
10.1.4
1662
2.95E+05
(3%)
6.80E+12
(331%)
67
Latest
Jmts
1758
6.70E+05
(6%)
2.68E+13
(1307)
138
Software
version
Version 9.2.1
Version 10.1.3
Version 10.1.4
Version Java
Software version
Magnitude
range
9.2.1
10.1.3
10.1.4
Jmts
-2.0<M<-1.5
-1.5<M<-1.0
46
37
38
39
-1.0<M<-0.5
515
373
371
371
-0.5<M<0.0
620
611
609
607
0.0<M<0.5
377
345
368
353
0.5<M<1.0
98
157
206
151
1.0<M<1.5
79
66
80
1.0<M<2.0
55
57
2.0<M<2.5
V 9.2.1
V 10.1.3
V 9.2.1
V 10.1.3
According to
Energy [J]
Version 9.2.1
2.1E+05
Version 10.1.3
1.4E+03
Version 10.1.4
6.3E+02
Jmts
1.1E+03
Kanamori estimate
5.0E+05
7.1E+05
Moment
Magnitude
Kanamori
estimate
Guttenberg &
Richter
estimate
PMC average
1.3
5.0E+06 J
5.6E+06 J
9.7 E+05 J
1.9
2.0
9.6E+06 J
5.0E+07 J
138029 events
In this:
Events above 0.0 5189 events
Events above 1.0 - 135 events
PMC seismic data base
Seismogram
In case of the spectral analysis the seismic moment is calculated from the
following relation:
Mo = (4oco3RCo)/(FcRcSc)
Where: o is the density of source material
co is either P-wave velocity or the S-wave velocity at the source
Rc is the distance between the source and the receiver
c is the low frequency level, this is a spectral parameter
Fc accounts for the radiation of either P or S waves
Cc accounts for the free-surface amplification of either P or S wave
amplitudes
Sc is the site correction for either P or S waves
E [J]
Example:
John is planning a wedding party
Today you can hire professionals wedding manager and his team
John sees this option as expensive I can do it myself
But there is a lot involved
- Catering
- Flower arrangements
- Drinks
- Music
- Photographer
- Transport and accommodation arrangements. and probably much more
But there is still time so it will be OK
Time passes and John is very busy and time is running out
A day or two before the wedding party John remembers that he needs to
hire some tables and chairs
There will be 240 people attending
John phones around and find out the following:
-Standard table size sitting comfortably 4 people is 200cm by 90cm
(0.45m per person)
-Easy 1.8 m seats 4 people, for 240 people I will need 60 tables and the
price is so and so
-He then remembers that some time ago he was driving by a hire company
and he asked for prices and yes they were much cheaper and the tables looked
OK for sizeJohn phones and orders the tables
On the wedding day (for sure Sunday) the tables arrive but they are 180cm by 90cm.
Johns problem:
The standard 200cm by 90cm table times 60 gives area of 108m
The table that arrived is 180cm by 90cm times 60 gives an area of 97.2m
Comfortable sitting of each invited person requires 0.45m per person
John is short of 10.8m table surface that is place to seat comfortably 24 people
Bad luck? No but it is there:
-Remember it is Sunday (all places are closed)
-And all quests arrive
Estimate of the table size resulted in a disaster for John