EE2036 FLEXIBLE AC

TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
The concept of flexible AC transmission
Reactive power control in electrical power
transmission lines
uncompensated transmission line
series and shunt compensation.
Overview of FACTS devices
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
Thyristor Switched Series capacitor (TCSC)
Unified Power Flow controller (UPFC)
Integrated Power Flow Controller (IPFC).

REAL, REACTIVE AND APPARENT

POWER

 Equation(2.2) comprises two doublefrequency (2) components. The first

term has an average value as well as
a peak magnitude of VI cos . This
average value is the active power, P,
flowing from the source to the load.
The second term has a zero average
value, but its peak value is VI sin

Written in phasor domain, the complex power in the

network

REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

The reactive power is essential for
creating the needed coupling fields
for energy devices.
It constitutes voltage and current
loading of circuits but does not result
in an average (active) power
consumption and is, in fact, an
important component in all ac power
networks.

 To make transmission networks

operate within desired voltage limits,
there are many methods of making
up or taking away reactive power.
Hence it is called reactive-power
control

UNCOMPENSATED
TRANSMISSION LINES
To understand the need for reactive-power
control, let us consider a simple case of a
lossless short-transmission line connecting a
source Vs to a load Z
(For simplicity, the
line is represented only by its inductive
reactance Xl)
To keep the voltages in the network at nearly
the rated value, two control actions seem
possible:
1. load compensation, and
2. system compensation

Load Compensation
Here the compensation makes the power factor to become unity
by adding a parallel capacitive load such that the reactive current
Ix of the load is cancelled (ie) Ic = Ix.
The absence of Ix eliminates the voltage drop V1, bringing Vr
closer in magnitude to Vs; this condition is called load
compensation.
Usually done by the customers on their premises.
Loads compensation will reduce the line drop but do not eliminate
it; they still
experience
a drop of V2 from j IrXl .
System Compensation
This compensator draws a reactive current to overcome both
components of the voltage drop V1 and V2 so that the
receiving-end voltage, Vr, equals the
sending-end voltage, Vs.
To compensate for V2, an additional capacitive current, Ic, over
and above Ic that compensates for Ix, is drawn by the
compensator such that IcXl = V2
Such compensators are employed by power utilities to ensure the
quality of supply to their customers

 Reactive-power control for a line is often called reactive-power

compensation.
External devices or subsystems that control reactive power on
transmission lines are known as compensators.
A compensator mitigates the undesirable effects of the circuit
parameters of a given line.
The objectives of line compensation are invariably
1. to increase the power-transmission capacity of the line, and/ or
2. to keep the voltage profile of the line along its length within
acceptable bounds to ensure the quality of supply to the
connected customers as well as to minimize the line-insulation
costs.
3. Improvement in system stability.

POWER FLOW IN UNCOMPENSATED

LINE

For the sake of simplicity magnitudes of Vs=Vr=Vm=V

The mid point phasor voltage Vm and line current phasor I are given by

a lossless line power is same at both ends and mid point so active power P is give

For reactive power ; Qr is equal and opposite of Qs. So Q is

given by Qs = -Qr

parameters for controlling power in

transmission line
Applying a voltage in the midpoint can increase or
decrease the magnitude of power
Applying a voltage in series with the line, and in
phase quadrature with the current flow, can
increase or decrease the magnitude of current
flow. Because the current flow lags the voltage by
900, there is injection of reactive power in series
If a voltage with a variable magnitude and a phase
is applied in series, then varying the amplitude and
phase angle can control both the active and
reactive current flows. There is a injection of both
active power and reactive power in series

 Increasing and decreasing the value if the

reactance X cause a decrease and increase of
the power height of the curves.
for given power flow, varying X correspondingly
varies the angle between the terminal
voltages.
Power flow can also be controlled by regulating
the magnitude of sending and receiving end
voltages Vsand Vr. This type of control has much
more influence over the reactive power flow
than the active power flow

Therefore, we can conclude that the

power flow in a transmission line can
be controlled by
(1) applying a shunt voltage Vmat
the midpoint
(2) varying the reactance X
(3) applying a voltage with a variable
magnitude in series with line

SHUNT COMPENSATION

 The
objective
of
applying
shunt
compensation in a transmission system is
to supply reactive power to increase the
transmittable power and to make it more
compatible with the load demand.
The shunt compensator should be able to
minimize the line overvoltage under light
load conditions, and maintain voltage
levels under heavy load conditions

 An ideal shunt compensator (P=0) is connected at the

midpoint of the transmission line, as shown in Figure.
The compensator voltage that is in phase with the
midpoint voltage Vmhas amplitude of V identical to that of
the sending- and receiving-end voltages. That is V m= Vs=
Vr= V.
The midpoint compensator in effect segments the
transmission line into two independent parts:
(1) the first segment, with an impedance of jX/2, carries
power from sending-end to the midpoint, and
(2) the second segment, also with an impedance of jX/2,
carries power from the midpoint to the receiving end.

SERIES COMPENSATION

FLOW OF POWER IN AN AC SYSTEM

Power Flow in Parallel Paths

Power Flow in a Meshed

SYstem

LIMITS THE LOADING CAPABILITY

Basically, there are three kinds of limitations:

Thermal
Thermal capability of an overhead line is a function of the ambient
temperature, wind conditions, condition of the conductor, and ground
clearance

Dielectric
Dielectric From an insulation point of view, many lines are designed
very conservatively. For a given nominal voltage rating, it is often
possible to increase normal operation by +10% voltage (i.e., 500 kV to
550 kV) or even higher. Care is then needed to ensure that dynamic
and transient over voltages are within limits
Stability
There are a number of stability issues that limit the transmission
capability.
These include:
Transient stability
Dynamic stability
Steady-state stability
Frequency collapse
Voltage collapse

CONVENSIONAL REACTIVE POWER

CONTROL/VOLTAGE CONTROL/
Static VAR compensation
Switched capacitor/reactor banks

Rotating VAR compensation

Synchronous condenser which is a unloaded synchronous motor
connected to AC system, whose reactive-power output can be
continuously controlled by varying its excitation current. When it is
under excited, it behaves like an inductor, absorbing reactive power
from the ac system. However, when it is overexcited, it functions
like a capacitor, injecting reactive power into the ac system

Tap changing transformers

Phase shifting Transformers
Line compensation
Series compensation
Shunt compensation

Opportunities for FACTS

These opportunities arise through the ability of
FACTS Controllers to control the interrelated
parameters that govern the operation of
transmission systems including series impedance,
shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle,
and the damping of oscillations at various
frequencies below the rated frequency.
These constraints cannot be overcome, while
maintaining the required system reliability, by
mechanical means without lowering the useable
transmission capacity.
By providing added flexibility, FACTS Controllers

BASIC TYPES OF FACTS

CONTROLLERS
In general, FACTS Controllers can be
divided into four categories:
Series Controllers
Shunt Controllers
Combined series-series Controllers
Combined series-shunt Controlle

Series Controller
The series Controller could be a
variable impedance such as capacitor,
reactor, etc., or a power electronics
based
variable
source
of
main
frequency,
sub
synchronous
and
harmonic
frequencies
(or
a
combination) to serve the desired
need.
In principle, all series controllers inject
voltage in series with the line.
As long as the voltage is in phase
quadrature with the line current, the
series Controller only supplies or
consumes variable reactive power. Any
other phase relationship will involve
handling of real power as well

Shunt controller
the shunt Controllers may be
variable impedance, variable
source or a combination
In principle, all shunt Controllers
inject current into the system at
the point of connection
As long as the injected current is
in phase quadrature with the line
voltage, the shunt Controller
only supplies or consumes
variable reactive power. Any
other phase relationship will
involve handling of real power as
well.

COMBINATION OF
CONTROLLERS
Two methods of operation/ Control:
Co ordinated manner - This could be a
combination
of
separate
series
controllers, which are controlled in a
coordinated manner
UNIFIED Manner - the term "unified"
here means that the dc terminals of all
Controller converters are all connected
together for real power transfer

UNIFIED SERIES - SERIES

CONTROLLER
In figure, series Controllers provide
independent series reactive
compensation for each line and also
transfer real power among the lines
via the power link .
The real power transfer capability of
the unified series-series Controller,
referred to as Interline Power Flow
Controller, (IPFC).
IPFC makes it possible to balance
both the real and reactive power
flow in the lines and thereby
maximize the utilization of the
transmission system.

SERIES SHUNT
CONTROLLERS
They also operate in co
ordinated or Unified manner
In principle, combined shunt and
series Controllers inject current
into the system with the shunt
part of the Controller and
voltage in series in the line with
the series part of the Controller.
However, when the shunt and
series Controllers are unified,
there can be a real power
exchange between the series
and shunt Controllers via the
power link

DEFINITIONS
Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission- The ability
to accommodate changes in the electric transmission
system or operating conditions while maintaining
sufficient steady state and transient margins
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)- Altenating
current transmission systems incorporating power
electronic-based and other static controllers to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
FACTS Controller- A power electronic-based system
and other static equipment that provide control of
one or more AC transmission system parameters.

Shunt
Connected
.
'
Controllers

Static Var Compensator (SVC )

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)
Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)
Supercondacting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Static Var Generator or Absorber (SVG)

Series Connected
Controllers
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC)
Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor
(TSSC)
Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor
(TCSR)
Thyristor-Switched Series Reactor
(TSSR)
Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC)

COMBINED CONTROLLERS
Combined Shunt and
Series Connected
Controllers

Unified Power Flow

Controller (UPFC)
Combination of
STATCOM and SSSC

Combined Series and Series

Connected Controllers

Interline Power Flow

Controller (IPFC)
Combination of two
SSSC

BENEFITS FROM
FACTS TECHNOLOGY
Control of power flow as ordered. The use of control of
the power flow may be to follow a contract, meet the
utilities' own needs, ensure optimum power flow, ride
through emergency conditions, or a combination
thereof.
Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal
capabilities, including short term and seasonal.
Increase the system security through raising the
transient stability limit, limiting short-circuit currents
and overloads, managing cascading blackouts and
damping electromechanical oscillations of power
systems and machines.

 Provide secure tie line connections to

neighboring utilities and regions thereby
decreasing overall generation reserve
requirements on both sides
Upgrade of lines
Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing
the lines to carry more active power
Reduce loop flows
Increase utilization of lowest cost generation

SVC

 A static VAR compensator (SVC) consist of TCRs in parallel with

one or more TSCs.
The general arrangement of an SVC is shown in Figure The
reactive elements of the compensator are connected to the
transmission line through a transformer to prevent the elements
having to withstand full system voltage.
A control system determines the exacts gating instants of reactors
according to a predetermined strategy.
The strategy usually aims to maintain the transmission line
voltage at a fixed level. For this reason, the control system has a
system voltage input taken through a potential transformer (PT);
additionally, other input parameters (or variables) to the control
system may exist.
The control system ensures that the compensator voltage remains
more or less constant by adjusting the conduction angle

TSSC VS TCSC

 the TCSC consist of the series-compensating capacitor

shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR), as shown in
Figure .
this arrangement is similar in structure to the TSSC. If the
impedance of the reactor X Lis sufficiently smaller than that
of the capacitor Xc, it can be operated in an on-off manner
like the TSSC.
Varying the delay angle can vary the inductive impedance
of the TCR. Thus the TCSC can provide a continuously
variable capacitor by means of partially cancelling the
effective compensating capacitance by the TCR. Therefore,
the steady state impedance of the TCSC is that of a paralled
LC circuit, consisting of a fixed capacitive impedance X Cand
variable inductive impedance X L.

UPFC

 In UPFC which combines a STATCOM and an SSSC .

This is a complete Controller for controlling active and reactive
power control through the line, as well as line voltage control..
The energy-sorting capacity of the dc capacitor is generally small.
Therefore, the active power drawn (generated) by the shunt
converter should be equal to the active power generated (drawn)
by the series converter. Otherwise, the dc-link voltage may increase
or decrease with respect to the rated voltage, depending on the net
power in the shunt or series converter.
On other hand the reactive power on the series and shunt
converter can be choosen independently, giving a greater flexibility
to the power flow control .
Additional storage such as a superconducting magnet connected to
the dc link via an electronic interface would provide the means of
further enhancing the effectiveness of the UPFC