Ohm's Law

For manyconductorsof electricity, theelectric currentwhich

will flow through them is directly proportional to thevoltage
applied to them. When amicroscopic view of Ohm's lawis
taken, it is found to depend upon the fact that the drift
velocity of charges through the material is proportional to
the electric field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to
current is called theresistance, and if the ratio is constant
over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an
"ohmic" material. If the material can be characterized by
such a resistance, then the current can be predicted from
the relationship:

Kirchoffs First Law The Current Law, (KCL)

Kirchoffs Current Lawor KCL, states that the
total current or charge entering a junction or node
is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it
has no other place to go except to leave, as no
charge is lost within the node. In other words the
algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and
leaving a node must be equal to
zero,I(exiting)+I(entering)=0. This idea by Kirchoff is
commonly known as theConservation of Charge.
Kirchoffs Current Law

Here, the 3 currents entering the node,I1,I2,I3are

all positive in value and the 2 currents leaving the
node,I4and I5are negative in value. Then this

The termNodein an electrical circuit generally

refers to a connection or junction of two or more
current carrying paths or elements such as cables
and components. Also for current to flow either in
or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist.
We can use Kirchoffs current law when analysing
parallel circuits.

Kirchoffs Second Law The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchoffs Voltage Lawor KVL, states that in any closed loop
network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum
of all the voltage drops within the same loop which is also
equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages
within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchoff is
known as theConservation of Energy.
Kirchoffs Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in thesame

directionnoting the direction of all the voltage drops, either
positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting
point. It is important to maintain the same direction either
clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be
equal to zero. We can use Kirchoffs voltage law when analysing
series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits
usingKirchoffs Circuit Lawsa number of definitions and
terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being
analysed such as: node, paths, branches, loops and meshes.

What are single phase and three phase connections?

Most of us know that in the world of electricity, current through the
wires carry electricity that light our bulbs and run our appliances.
The type of current that is supplied from electricity grid is Alternating
Current (or AC). In a single-phase supply, a single alternating current
in supplied through a single wire, whereas in a three-phase system 3
wires carry alternating current with a definite time offset in between
the voltage waves.
In India a single-phase supply is a 230V supply through two wires
and 3-phase supply is 415 V supply through 4 wires and in the house
the line can be divided to give 230V at individual point. The basic
difference between the two is that a three-phase connection can
handle heavy load while a single-phase cannot.
To give an analogy to help you understand the difference, lets take
an example of a highway. If the highway is a single lane highway,
only a few two wheelers may go on it in parallel, or if we try to
squeeze, we may put two cars running in parallel. But beyond that
things will not move, whereas if we have a 3-lane highway, lot of
vehicles can move together in parallel. Even on a single-phase
highway, number of vehicles that can run together also depends on
the size of vehicles. A car and a two-wheeler may easily go in
parallel on a single-lane highway, but a truck may just have to be
left alone.

Similarly consider single-phase as a single lane highway and three-phase

as a multilane highway. There is a limit to the load that a single phase
can handle and typically that number is set to 7.5 kW (or 7500 watts or
10 Horse Power). So if sum of wattage of all the appliances that you are
running at a time is more than 7.5 kW, then you need a three-phase
connection. And you can get to 7.5 kW if you have three 1.5 ton ACs and
a water heater all running together. Or you have a machine that has a
motor that is more than 10 HP. If the load is less than 7.5 kW, then a
single-phase connection can easily handle it.
Note:A lot of people have misconception that Air Conditioners require
three-phase connection. Which actually is not true because all ACs have
motors designed to run on single-phase. Only if you have more than 3
ACs that are all in use together you may need a three-phase connection.

Single-phase power is:

Used in most homes in North America
Able to supply ample power for most smaller customers, including
homes and small, non-industrial businesses
Adequate for running motors up to about 5 horsepower; a single-phase
motor draws significantly more current than the equivalent 3-phase
motor, making 3-phase power a more efficient choice for industrial
applications
.

3-phase power is:

Common in large businesses, as well as industry and manufacturing
Increasingly popular in power-hungry, high-density data centers
Expensive to convert from an existing single-phase installation, but 3phase allows for smaller, less expensive wiring and lower voltages,
making it safer and less expensive to run
Highly efficient for equipment designed to run on 3-phase

With the wave form of single-phase power, when the

wave passes through zero, the power supplied at that
moment is zero. In the U.S., the wave cycles 60 times
per second.

3-phase power has 3 distinct wave cycles that overlap.

Each phase reaches its peak 120 degrees apart from the
others so the level of power supplied remains
consistent.

EARTHING SYSTEM:
Inelectricity supplysystems, anearthing
systemorgrounding systemis circuitry which connects parts
of the electric circuit with theground, thus defining the
electric potentialof the conductors relative to the Earth's
conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect
thesafetyandelectromagnetic compatibilityof the power
supply. In particular, it affects the magnitude and distribution of
short circuitcurrents through the system, and the effects it
creates on equipment and people in the proximity of the circuit.
If a fault within an electrical device connects a live supply
conductor to an exposed conductive surface, anyone touching it
while electrically connected to the earth will complete a circuit
back to the earthed supply conductor and receive an
electric shock.

Types of Earthing
There are various ways of doing EARTHING:
Conventional EARTHING
* Pipe Earthing,
* GI Plat Earthing,
* Cast Iron plat Earthing,
* Copper plat Earthing
Maintenance Free EARTHING
Conventional Earthing:
The Conventional system of Earthing calls for digging of a large pit into
which a GI pipe or a copper plate is positioned amidst layers of charcoal
and salt. It is cumbersome to install only one or two pits in a day.
The Conventional system of GI pipe Earthing or copper plate Earthing
requires maintenance and pouring of water at regular interval.
Maintenance free earthing:
It is a new type of earthing system which is ready made, standardized,
scientifically developed.

1). Plate Earthing:

In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with
dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized
iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x in) is
buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m
(10ft) from the ground level.
2).Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and
diameter is placed vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of
earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the
type of soil. The dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in
diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or greater for dry
and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the
pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
3). Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2
inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow
section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried
upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance
to a desired value.

4). Earthing through the Waterman

In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes
are used for earthing purpose. Make sure to check the resistance
of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the resistance
for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of
the strands of the wire and make sure it is in the straight and
parallel position which is possible then to connect tightly to the
waterman pipe.
5). Strip or Wire Earthing:
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not
less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal
trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a crosssection of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of
3.0mm2if its a galvanized iron or steel.

Electric wiring system in building must comply with few standard norms
as per ISI in order to ensure security and safety. ISI lays some rules while
fixing or installing cables in the wall in order to provide electricity in the
entire building
The foremost specification that electric wiring system require is carrying
out of wiring by distributing with main branch distribution boards to
other convenient places and installing non-isolated fuse.
Make sure that all the conductors are accessible and fitted along with
the wall.
Cable wiring should be avoided from the ceiling.
Installation of circuit in three wire system or in three different phases
must be kept at maximum distance.
The entire wiring system and apparatus must be compliment Standard
specifications.
For safety purpose keep the load on circuit minimal.
In the Power wiring circuit maximum number of points should be 2 and
keep the size of wire 1.5 mm in copper & 2 mm in aluminum.
Wires fixed horizontally should be at minimum height of 3 m while the
height of switch board must be 1.5 m.
Standard specification says fuse wire must be connected to phase wire
only.
Connection of neutral wire must be given to neutral link only and in the
same way all the switches should be connected in phase wire.
The size of Earth wire for light circuit must be 1 mm square in copper
and 1.5 mm square in aluminum.

Anelectrical conduitis a tube used to protect and route

electrical wiringin abuildingornonbuilding structure. Electrical
conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber, orfired clay. Most
conduit is rigid, but flexible conduit is used for some purposes.
Conduit is generally installed byelectriciansat the site of installation
of electrical equipment. Its use, form, and installation details are often
specified by wiring regulations, such as the US
National Electrical Code(NEC) and otherbuilding codes.

Metal
Rigid metal conduit (RMC) is a thick-walled threaded tubing, usually
made of coated steel, stainless steel or aluminum.
Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC) is galvanized steel tubing, with a
tubing wall that is thick enough to allow it to be threaded. Its
common applications are in commercial and industrial construction.
[1]

Intermediate metal conduit (IMC) is a steel tubing heavier than EMT

but lighter than RMC. It may be threaded.
Electrical metallic tubing (EMT), sometimes called thin-wall, is
commonly used instead of galvanized rigid conduit (GRC), as it is
less costly and lighter than GRC. EMT itself is not threaded, but can
be used with threaded fittings that clamp to it. Lengths of conduit
are connected to each other and to equipment with clamp-type
fittings. Like GRC, EMT is more common in commercial and
industrial buildings than in residential applications. EMT is generally
made of coated steel, though it may be aluminum.
Aluminumconduit, similar to galvanized steel conduit, is a rigid
tube, generally used in commercial and industrial applications
where a higher resistance to corrosion is needed. Such locations
would includefood processingplants, where large amounts of
waterand cleaning chemicals would make galvanized conduit
unsuitable. Aluminum cannot be directly embedded inconcrete,

Aluminum cannot be directly embedded inconcrete, since the

metal reacts with thealkalisincement. The conduit may be coated
to prevent corrosion by incidental contact with concrete. Aluminum
conduit is generally lower cost than steel in addition to having a
lower labor cost to install, since a length of aluminum conduit will
have about one-third the weight of an equally-sized rigid steel
PVCconduit is the lightest in weight compared to other conduit
conduit
materials, and usually lower in cost than other forms of conduit.
In North American electrical practice, it is available in three
different wall thicknesses, with the thin-wall variety only suitable
for embedded use in concrete, and heavier grades suitable for
direct burial and exposed work. Most of the various fittings made
for metal conduit are also available in PVC form. The plastic
material resists moisture and many corrosive substances, but
since the tubing is non-conductive an extra bonding (grounding)
conductor must be pulled into each conduit. PVC conduit may be
heated and bent in the field, by using special heating tools
designed for the purpose. Rigid nonmetallic conduit (RNC) is a
non-metallic unthreaded smooth-walled tubing.
Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT) is a thin-walled corrugated
tubing that is moisture-resistant and flame retardant. It is pliable
such that it can be bent by hand, and is often flexible although
the fittings are not. It is not threaded due to its corrugated

Alightning rod(US,AUS) orlightning conductor(UK) is ametal

rod or metallic object mounted on top of an elevated structure,
such as abuilding, aship, or even atree,electrically bondedusing
a wire orelectrical conductorto interface withground or "earth"
through anelectrode, engineered to protect the structure in the
event oflightningstrike. If lightning hits the structure, it will
preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through
the wire, instead of passing through the structure, where it could
start a fire or causeelectrocution. Lightning rods are also called
finials, air terminals or strike termination devices.

In a lightning protection system, a lightning rod is a single

component of the system. The lightning rod requires a connection
to earth to perform its protective function. Lightning rods come in
many different forms, including hollow, solid,
pointed, rounded, flat strips or even bristle brush-like.
The main attribute common to all lightning rods is that they
are all made of conductive materials, such ascopperandaluminum.
Copper and itsalloysare the most common
materials used in lightning protection.[1]

Lightning protection systems are used to prevent or lessenlightning strike

damage to structures. Lightning protection systems mitigate the fire
hazard which lightning strikes pose to structures. A lightning protection
system provides a low-impedance path for the lightning current to lessen
the heating effect of current flowing through flammable structural
materials. If lightning travels through porous and water-saturated materials,
these materials may literally explode if their water content is
flashed to steamby heat produced from the high current. This is why trees
are often shattered by lightning strikes.
Because of the high energy and current levels associated with lightning
(currents can be in excess of 150,000 amps), and the very rapidrise timeof
a lightning strike, no protection system can guarantee absolute safety from
lightning. Lightning current will divide to follow every conductive path to
ground, and even the divided current can cause damage. Secondary "sideflashes" can be enough to ignite a fire, blow apart brick, stone, or concrete,
or injure occupants within a structure or building. However, the benefits of
basic lightning protection systems have been evident for well over a
century

The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning

rods or strike termination devices), bonding conductors, ground
terminals (ground or "earthing" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the
connectors and supports to complete the system. The air terminals are
typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof structure, and
are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors (called "down
conductors" or "downleads"), which are connected by the most direct
route to one or more grounding or earthing terminals.Connections to
the earth electrodes must not only have low resistance, but must have
low self-inductance.

Track lightingis a method oflightingwherelight fixtures

are attached anywhere on a continuous track device which
containselectrical conductors.[1]This is as opposed to the
routing of electrical wiring to individual light positions.
Tracks can be mounted to ceilings or walls, lengthwise
downbeams, or crosswise acrossraftersorjoists. They can
also be hung with rods from especially high places like
vaulted ceilings.
Typical systems haveline voltagerunning through a
recessed track. The track may have more than one live
conductor, so that multiple switched circuits can be used to
control different fittings on the same track. This is selected
by placing the tab of the connector on the fixture to one
side or the other when attaching it to the track. There are
three standard types of tracks used in North America, as
well as elsewhere in the world. They are often termed "H",
"J", and "L" track, after the names of the manufacturers
that established the standards, Halo, Juno, andLightolier.
To identify a track fixture, you may use the following two
rules: 1. if it has three contacts, it is probably "H" type. 2. If
the contact-tips are 1inch apart, it is probably "J" type, if
they are 7/8inch apart, it is probably "L" type.

Many systems now simply use a single live and then use digital
control interfaces such asDALIto control the fittings. This means that
each fitting can be independently controlled.
More modern systems are available withlow voltage(10, 12, or 24
volts) running through the track, which is in itself decorative. In this
case, the fixture may clamp onto a track made of two metal strips
separated with aninsulatingstrip. Two-circuit configurations are rare
in such systems. The track is powered by a transformer which
converts the high voltage into low voltage. There are magnetic and
electronic transformers.

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT :

Material handling equipmentis mechanical
equipment used for the movement, storage, control and
protection of materials, goods and products throughout the
process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal.
[1]
The different types of material handling equipment can be
classified into four major categories:[2]transport equipment,
positioning equipment, unit load formation equipment, and
storage equipment.