TERM

Chromosome
A

structure made of DNA and histones

DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid)

polynucleotide that contains the pentose

sugar deoxyribose.

Chromatid
One

of two identical parts of a chromosome

held together by a centromere

Centromere
The

centralize region joining two sister

chromatids

 Genome
The

complete complement of an organisms genes

An organisms genetic material

Chromatin
Content

of the nucleus
Consisting of protein, DNA and RNA, which form threads

Euchromatin
Loosely

packed chromatin

Heterochromatin
Densely

packed chromatin

Cytokinesis
Division

of the cytoplasm during cell division

 Karyokinesis
Division

of the nucleus during cell division

Gene
Functional

unit of heredity
Composed of DNA which carries
information from one generation to the
next
Gamete
A

haploid cell, formed by meiotic cell

division of a germ cell
Required for sexual reproduction

The concept of cell division

Basic characteristics of cell division

Characteristics of cell survival, DNA and
chromosome

THE CONCEPT OF CELL DIVISION.

Modern cell theory states that All new cells are
derived from other cell.
All cells which comprise a human are derived,
through the cell division, from single zygote formed
by the fusion of two gametes.
These gametes in turn were derived from the division
of certain parental cell.

There are two basic types:

1.Mitosis which results in all daughter cells
having the same number of chromosomes as
the parent.
2. Meiosis which results in the daughter cells
having only half the number of
chromosomes found in the parent cell.

 Cell division
involves the distribution of identical genetic material
(DNA) to two daughter cells.

A dividing cell
duplicates its DNA, allocates the two copies to
opposite ends of the cell
then split into daughter cells.

The cell cycle

Description of the four stages in the cell
cycle
General explanation events during the G1, S
and G2 followed by events in the mitotic
phase.

THE CELL CYCLE.

1. The complete sequence of
events in the life of an
individual diploid cell.
2. The four stages of the cell
cycle;
i.

G1

The first Gap Phase

ii. S Phase
iii. G2

The second Gap phase

iv. Mitotic Phase

i.

G1 - The first growth

phase

The longest phase

Volume of cytoplasm
increase
Protein synthesis
Increase number of
organelles

ii. S phase

DNA synthesis phase

The cells DNA replicates
and non consist of two
identical chromatids.

iii. G2 - The second growth

phase

Energy stores are increased.

iv. Mitosis

This process of
nuclear division and
followed by division
of cytoplasm called
cytokinesis.

Mitosis
Explain the mitotic cell division using diagrams
and photographs
Show the position of the chromosomes at each
stage
State the changes in the chromosomes
Describe briefly the cytokinesis process and list
the differences between cell division in animal and
plant cells
Significances of mitosis

MITOSIS
2 phases :
i. nucleus division ( karyokinesis )
ii. cytoplasm division ( cytokinesis )

4 stages:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase.

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Prophase
Chromosomes
visible as long, thin tangled threads.
shorten and thicken
comprise two chromatids joined at the
centromere.

Centrioles
migrate to opposite ends of poles of the cell
(except for plant).
microtubules develop and form a star-shaped
structure called an aster.
Some of these microtubule, called spindle fibers,
span the cell from pole to pole.

The nucleolus disappears

Nuclear envelope disintegrates

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Metaphase
The chromosomes
arranged themselves at
the metaphase plate, and
become attached to
certain spindle fibers at the
centromere.
Contraction of these fibers
draws the individual
chromatids slightly apart.

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Anaphase
The centromeres split and further shortening of the spindle fibers causes the two
chromatids of each chromosome to separate and migrate to opposite poles.
The shorting of the spindle fibers is due to the progressive removal of the tubulin
molecules of which they are made.
The energy for this process is provided by mitochondria which are observed to
collect around the spindle fibers.

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Telophase

The chromatids reach their respective poles and a new nuclear envelope
forms around each group.

The chromatids uncoil and lengthen, thus becoming invisible again.

The spindle fibers disintegrate and nucleolus reforms in each new nucleus.

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Cytokinesis division of cytoplasm

In Animal Cells
Occur by a process known
as cleavage.

The first sign of cleavage is

the appearance of cleavage
furrow. (Begins as a
shallow growth in the cell
surface)

Cytokinesis division of cytoplasm

In Plant Cells

Have walls but no cleavage furrow.

During telophase, vesicles derived from
Golgi apparatus move along
microtubules to the middle of the cell
producing a cell plate.

The cell plate enlarges until its

surrounding membrane fuses with the
plasma membrane along the perimeter
of the cell.

Two daughter cells result, each with its

own plasma membrane. A new cell wall
arising from the contents of the cell
plate has formed between the daughter
cells.

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.

Differences between mitosis in plant and animal

cells
Animal Cells
1. Involve aster or
spindle formation.

Plant Cells
1. Do not form
centriols and lack
centriols.

2. Cytokinesis occurs 2. Occurs by the

by the constriction of
growth of a cell plate
microtubules
through the fusion of
cleavage furrow.
vesicles.

Significance of mitosis
Genetic stability
Mitosis produce two nuclei which have the same
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Daughter cells are genetically identical to the

parent cell and no variation in genetic information
can be introduced during mitosis.

This result in genetic stability within populations of

cells derived from the same parental cells.

Significance of mitosis
Growth

The number of cell within organism increases by mitosis and this is the
basis of growth in multicellular organisms.
Cell replacement

Replacement of cells and tissues involves mitosis.

Regeneration

Some animal are able to regenerate whole parts of the body, such as
legs in crustacea and arms in star fish. Production of the new cells
involve mitosis.
Asexual reproduction

Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new

individuals of a species by one parent organism.

Questions

Figure 1 shows the phase in two type of cell division and

each cell contain four chromosomes
(a) i. Name the phase in cell A

(1M)

ii.State 2 events which occur before the phase

that you name in a(i).

(2M)

iii. State the type of cell division in cell A

(1M)

iv. State 2 significant of a(iii).

(2M)

(b) i. Name the phase in cell B

ii. Give the reason for your answer in b(i).

(1M)
(1M)

B
Figure 1

(c) Name the organ which undergoes cell division in a(iii).

In plant

(1M)

In animal

(1M)

Meiosis
Explain the processes in Meiosis I and Meiosis II
using diagrams and photographs
Show the position and changes of the chromosomes
during each stage
Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad,
chiasma, cross-over and centromere
Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis

CONTENT OF MEIOSIS
Meiosis (meio, to reduce)
a form of nuclear division in which the
chromosome number is halved from
the diploid number (2n) to the haploid
number (n).
involves DNA replication during
interphase in the parent cell,
followed by two cycle of nuclear
divisions and cell division,
meiosis I
meiosis II

Thus a single diploid cell gives rise to

four haploid cells.

 Meiosis
occurs during the formation of
sperms and eggs
(gametogenesis) in animal and
during spores formation in
plants.
a continuous process but is
conveniently divided into

prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase
telophase.

These stages occur in the first

meiotic division and again in
the second meiotic division.

Meiosis
Interphase

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II

Terms

Sister chromatid
Two identical chromatid which are held together at the centromere.

Synapsis
Pairing

Bivalent
A pair of homologous chromosomes jointed by proteins of the synaptonemal complex and chiasma
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids and therefore, each bivalent consist of four chromatid.

Tetrad
a pair of homologous chromosomes with four chromatids

Homologous chromosome
A pair of chromosome which have the same pattern of genes along the chromosome but the nature of
the genes may differ.
One member of each pair comes from female parent and the other from male.

Chiasma
The region of cross-over at which two non-sister chromatid are joined.

Crossing over
An exchange of portions of chromatids between homologous chromosome.

Haploid
A single set of unpaired chromosomes

Diploid
Two sets of chromosomes are present, one set being derived from the female parent and the other
from male.

MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS I
4 phase

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

Prophase I
The longest phase.
This phase can be
divided into 5 stages;
a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene
c) Pachytene
d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis

i.

Leptotene

ii.

The beginning of first prophase of meiosis

Chromatids can be seen and pairing begins

Zygotene

iii.

The second phase of the first prophase of meiosis

Pairing (synapsis) of homologous chromosomes takes places
Intimate contact is made between identical regions of
homologous, in a process involving proteins and DNA organized
to form a synaptonemal complex.

Pachytene

iv.

Paired homologous chromosomes are fully contracted and

twisted around each other.

Diplotene

v.

Paired homologous chromosomes begins to move apart

They remain attached at a number of points (chiasma)

Diakinesis

The period at the end of the first prophase of meiosis

The separation of homologous chromosomes is almost complete
and crossing over has occurred.

Prophase I
All chromosomes are fully
contracted and deeply stained;
The centrioles (if present) have
migrated to the poles.
Chiasma and crossing over occurs.
The nucleoli and nuclear envelope
have dispersed.
Lastly, the spindle fibers form.

Metaphase I
The bivalents
become arranged
around the
metaphase plate,
attached by their
centromeres.

Anaphase I
Spindle fibers pull
homologous
chromosomes,
centromeres first,
towards opposite
poles of the spindle.
This separate the
chromosomes into
two haploid sets, one
set at each end of the
spindle.

Telophase I
The arrival of homologous
chromosomes at opposite poles marks
the ends of meiosis I.
Halving of chromosome number has
occurred but the chromosomes are still
composed of two chromatids.
Spindle and spindle fibers usually
disappear.
Cleavage (animals) or cell wall
formation (plants) then occurs as in
mitosis.

Meiosis
Interphase

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II

MEIOSIS II

MEIOSIS II
4 phase

Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

Interphase II
This stage is present
usually in animal cell
and varies in length.
No further DNA
replication occurs.

Meiosis II is similar
to mitosis.

Prophase II
This stage is absent if interphase II is

absent.
The nucleoli and nuclear envelopes

disperse and the chromatids shorten

and thicken.
Centrioles, if present move to opposite

poles of the cells and the end of

prophase II new spindle fibers appear.
They are arranged at right angles to

the spindle of meiosis I.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line

up separately
around the equator
of the spindle.

Anaphase II
The centromeres

divide and the

spindle fibers pull
the chromatids to
opposites poles,
centromeres first.
Sister chromatids

separate

Telophase II

As telophase in mitosis but four haploid

daughter cells are formed.

The chromosomes uncoiled, lengthen and

become very indistinct.

The spindle fibres disappear and the

centrioles replicate.

Nuclear envelope re-form around each

nucleus which now posses half the
number of chromosomes of the original
parents cell (haploid).

Subsequent cleavage (animals) or cell wall

formation (plants) will produce four
daughter cells from the original single
parent cell.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
Halving the chromosome number ensures that when gametes with
the haploid number fuse to form a zygote the normal diploid number
is restored.
Meiosis leads to increased variation because:
When the haploid cells fuse at fertilization there is
recombination of parental genes.
During metaphase I, homologous chromosomes are
together at the equator of the spindle, but they separate into
daughter cells independently of each other.
Chiasma and crossing-over can separate and rearrange
genes located on the same chromosome.

Three events, unique to meiosis, occur during the first

division cycle
1. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up
in a process called synapsis.
A protein zipper, the synaptonemal complex,
holds homologous chromosomes together tightly.
Later in prophase I, the joined homologous
chromosomes are visible as a tetrad.
At X-shaped regions called chiasmata, sections
of nonsister chromatids are exchanged.
Chiasmata is the physical manifestation of
crossing over, a form of genetic rearrangement.

2. During metaphase I
homologous pairs of chromosomes, not individual
chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase
plate.
In humans, you would see 23 tetrads.

3. During anaphase I,
it is homologous chromosomes, not sister
chromatids, that separate and are carried to opposite
poles of the cell.
Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere
until anaphase II.
The processes during the second meiotic
division are virtually identical to those of mitosis.

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND

MITOSIS
MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

1.

Occurs in soma cell.

Occurs in gonad cells

(ovaries in females and
testes in males)

2.

Conserves
chromosome number
(2n) replicated
chromosomes.

Reduces the chromosome

number by half (n) nonreplicated chromosomes.

*gonad : any of usually paired organs in animals that produced reproductive

cell (gametes).

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND

MITOSIS

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

3.

By the end of prophase, Synapsis occurs to form

no synapsis occur to
bivalent at the homologous
form bivalent.
chromosomes during
prophase I

4.

No chiasma occurs so Some chiasma occurs to

there is no cross over. form cross over.
Genetic variability is a result
from the cross over.

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND

MITOSIS
MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

5.

The contain of genetic

in daughter cell is
identical in parental
cells.

The contain of genetic in

daughter cell is no identical
as the parental cell.

6.

Two daughter cells

each diploid (2n)

Four daughter cells each

haploid (n)

7.

Cytokinesis occurs
once.

Cytokinesis occurs once or

twice.

8.

The daughter cell can

produces mitosis.

The daughter cell can

produces mitosis but not
meiosis.

MITOSIS PRODUCES 2 IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS BUT

MEIOSIS PRODUCES 4 NON-IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS

THATS ALL FOR

THIS TOPIC