Motivation

Motivation
Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
Mechanism
Mechanism of
of Motivation
Motivation
Needs Drives Goal

Needs: are created whenever there is a physiological or

psychological imbalance
Drives: are set up to alleviate needs; are action oriented and
provide energetic thrust towards reaching a goal:
psychological state that moves an individual towards
satisfying a need
Goal: is anything that will alleviate a need and reduce a
drive; attaining a goal will tend to restore physiological and
psychological balance
Classification
Classification of
of Motives
Motives
Primary motives: are unlearned and physiologically based
e.g.. Hunger, thirst, avoidance to pain
General motives: are also unlearned but are not
physiologically based e.g.. Curiosity, manipulation
Secondary motives: are products of learning
It involves the individuals socio-psychological motives i.e. to
understand why man behaves the way he does
Not inborn nor directly related to performance
Originate from training that an individual acquires from the
social organisations to which he belongs
Vary from culture to culture
Content Theories of Motivation
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 David Mc Clelland Theory
Process Theories of Motivation
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 The Porter Lawler Model
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 Equity Theory
 Attribution Theory
Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory (Frederick
(Frederick Herzberg)
Herzberg)
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
– maintenance factor
– contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
– contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the
satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
– job enrichment
– leads to superior performance & effort
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme
job satisfaction

Comparison
Comparisonofof
Satisfiers
Satisfiersand
and
Dissatisfiers
Dissatisfiers
Contrasting
Contrasting Views
Views of
of Satisfaction
Satisfaction
and
and Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction

Presence Absence
Herzberg’s
Herzberg’sMotivator-Hygiene
Motivator-HygieneTheory
Theory

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction No Satisfaction Satisfaction

• Pay • Meaningful work

• Status • Challenging work
• Security • Recognition for achieving
• Working Conditions • Feeling of achievement
• Fringe Benefits • Increased responsibility
• Policies • Opportunity for Growth
• Interpersonal Relations • The job itself
ERG
ERG Theory
Theory (Clayton
(Clayton Alderfer)
Alderfer)

Concepts:
Concepts:
More
Morethan
thanone
oneneed
needcan
can
bebeoperative
operativeatatthe
thesame
same
Core time.
time.
CoreNeeds
Needs
Existence: IfIfaahigher-level
higher-levelneed
need
Existence:provision
provisionof of cannot
basic
basicmaterial
material cannot be fulfilled,the
be fulfilled, the
requirements. desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
lower-
requirements. level
levelneed
needincreases.
increases.
Relatedness:
Relatedness:desire
desirefor
for
relationships.
relationships.
Growth:
Growth:desire
desirefor
for
personal
personaldevelopment.
development.
David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs

nPow

nAch nAff
Matching
Matching Achievers
Achievers and
and Jobs
Jobs
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory

Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsof
ofself
self
4.4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Methods
Methodsby bywhich
whichemployees
employeesovercome
overcome
perceived
perceivedinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Overrewarded
Overrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
more
morethan
thanequitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
2.2. Overrewarded
Overrewardedpiece-rate
piece-rateemployees
employeesproduce
produce
less,
less,but
butdo
dohigher
higherquality
qualitypiece
piecework.
work.
3.3. Underrewarded
Underrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
lower
lowerquality
qualitywork.
work.
4.4. Underrewarded
Underrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
producelarger
larger
quantities
quantitiesofoflower-quality
lower-qualitypiece
piecework
workthan
than
equitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees
employees
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory
Motivating By Altering Expectations
Expectancy Theory - characterizes people as rational beings who think about
what they must do to be rewarded and how much that reward means
to them before they actually perform their jobs
Basic elements - three different types of beliefs
Expectancy - belief that one’s effort will influence one’s
performance positively
Instrumentality - beliefs regarding the likelihood of being
rewarded according to her/his own level of
performance
Valence - value a person places on the rewards s/he expects
to receive from an organization
Combining all three components - motivation is a multiplicative
function of the three components
- if any component is zero, overall level of motivation is also
zero
 Motivating By Altering Expectations (cont.)
Expectancy Theory (cont.)
Other determinants of job performance - motivation is only one of
several important determinants
Skills and abilities - determine person/job fit
Role perceptions - what employees believe their jobs
duties to be
Opportunities - chance to perform the job
Managerial Applications of Expectancy Theory
Clarify people’s expectancies that effort leads to performance
- train, make desired performance attainable, and help
employee to attain level of performance
Administer rewards with a positive valence - “carrot must be tasty”
Cafeteria-style benefit plan - incentive system in which
worker can select the fringe benefits s/he wants from
a menu of available alternatives
Clearly link valued rewards and performance - enhance beliefs
about instrumentality by specifying what behavior
leads to what rewards
 Expectancy Theory: An Overview

Effort Skills and

abilities
Expectancy

Performance X
Instrumentality Motivation Job
Performance

Rewards X
Valence of
Rewards
Role perceptions
and opportunities
Porter-Lawler
Porter-Lawler Model
Model(Lyman
(LymanPorter
Porterand
andEdward
Edward
Lawler)
Lawler)

1. Value of 4. Ability 8. Perceived

Reward and Traits Equitability

7a. Intrinsic
Rewards

3. Effort 6. 9.
Performance Satisfaction

7b. Extrinsic
Rewards
5. Role
Perceptions
2. Effort –
Reward
Probability
 Four
Fourbasic
basicassumptions
assumptionsabout
abouthuman
humanbehavior
behaviorof
of
Porter
PorterLawler
LawlerModel
Model
It explains the relationship that exists between job
attitudes and job performance
• Individual behaviour is determined by a
combination of factors in the individual and the
environment
• Individuals are assumed to be rational human
beings who make conscious decisions about
their behaviour in organisations
• Individuals have different needs, desires and
goals
• On the basis of their expectations, individuals
decide between alternate behaviours and such
decided behaviour will lead to a desired outcome
The
Themodel
modelholds
holds that
that performance
performancein
inan
anorganisation
organisationisis
dependent
dependenton onthree
threefactors
factors
 An employee should have the desire to perform
 Motivation alone cannot ensure successful
performance, the employee should have the
abilities and skill
 The employee should have a clear perception of
his role in the organisation and accurate
knowledge of the job requirements which will
help him focus his efforts on accomplishing the
assigned tasks
Motivating By Setting Goals
Goal Setting - process of determining specific levels of performance for
workers to attain
- one of the most important motivational forces in organizations
Locke and Latham’s Goal-Setting Theory - having a goal serves as a
motivator because it influences:
- people’s beliefs about their ability to perform the task
- self-efficacy
- the degree to which people invest themselves in the task
- goal commitment is determined by the extent to
which an individual desires to attain the
goal and believes that s/he has a reason-
able chance of doing so
Motivating By Setting Goals (cont.)

Managers’ Guidelines for Setting Effective Performance Goals

Assign specific goals - people perform at higher levels when asked
to meet a specific, high-performance goal than when asked
simply to “do your best” or when no goal at all is assigned
- improve output, reduce absenteeism, decrease accidents

Assign difficult - but acceptable - performance goals - people

will internalize the goal if it is perceived as challenging
but attainable
- involve employees in the goal setting process
Provide feedback concerning goal attainment - informs
individual about how closely s/he is approaching the
performance goal
- without feedback, workers do their jobs blindly
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting

Job Design - suggests that jobs can be structured to enhcance people’s

interest in doing them
Job enlargement - expansion of the content of a job to include more
variety and more tasks at the same level
- does not increase responsibility nor skills needed to do job
- horizontal job loading
- may help to improve job performance, but its effects may
not be lasting
Job enrichment - gives employees a high degree of control over
their work, from planning and organization through
implementation and evaluation
- employees determine how to do their jobs
- vertical job loading
- although successful in many organizations, popularity is
limited by difficulty in implementation and lack of
employee acceptance
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Job Characteristics Model - specifies that enriching certain elements of jobs

alters people’s psychological states in a manner that enhances their
work effectiveness
Components of the Model - affect motivation, satisfaction, and performance
Core job dimensions
Skill variety - extent to which a job requires worker to use
different skills and talents
Task identity - extent to which an entire piece of work is
completed from beginning to end
Task significance - impact of job on others
Autonomy - amount of discretion to do job as desired
Feedback - information about performance effectiveness
Critical psychological states - beliefs engendered by core dimensions
Experienced meaningfulness - importance and value of job
- stems from skill variety, task identity and significance
Personal responsibility and accountability - stems from
autonomy
Knowledge of results - stems from feedback
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Job Characteristics Model (cont.)

Does model apply to everyone? - model is especially effective in
describing behavior of people who are high in growth need
strength

Putting it all together

Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - questionnaire used to
measure the core dimensions present in a given job
Motivating Potential Score (MPS) - mathematical index
describing the degree to which a job is designed
to motivate people

MPS = Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance X Autonomy X Feedback

3

Evidence for the model - most empirical tests have supported many
aspects of the model
 Job Characteristics Model

CRITICAL PERSONAL
CORE JOB PSYCHOLOGI- AND WORK
DIMENSIONS ICAL STATES OUTCOMES

Skill variety Experienced

Task variety meaningfulness
of the work High internal
Task significance
work motivation
Experienced
responsibility High-quality
Autonomy for outcomes work performance
of the work
High satisfaction
with the work
Knowledge of
the actual Low absenteeism
Feedback results of the and turnover
work activities

Employee growth
need strength
 Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Techniques for Designing Jobs that Motivate

Combine tasks - instead of having several workers perform
separate parts of a whole job, have each person perform
the entire job
Open feedback channels
Establish client relationships - person performing a job comes into
contact with the recipient of that service
Load jobs vertically - give people greater responsibility for
the job