Intro of digital image

processing

Lecture 5a

RemoteSensingRaster(Matrix)DataFormat
RemoteSensingRaster(Matrix)DataFormat

Digital number of column

5, row 4 at band 2 is
expressed as BV5,4,2 = 105.

Image file formats

BSQ (Band Sequential Format):

BIP (Band Interleaved by Pixel Format):

each line of the data followed immediately by the next line in the same
spectral band. This format is optimal for spatial (X, Y) access of any
part of a single spectral band. Good for multispectral images

the first pixel for all bands in sequential order, followed by the second
pixel for all bands, followed by the third pixel for all bands, etc.,
interleaved up to the number of pixels. This format provides optimum
performance for spectral (Z) access of the image data. Good for
hyperspectral images

BIL (Band Interleaved by Line Format):

the first line of the first band followed by the first line of the second
band, followed by the first line of the third band, interleaved up to the
number of bands. Subsequent lines for each band are interleaved in
similar fashion. This format provides a compromise in performance
between spatial and spectral processing and is the recommended file
format for most ENVI processing tasks. Good for images with 20-60
bands

Band 2

Band 3

20 50

50

90

76 66

55

45 120

80 80

60

70 150

85 80

97 101 105

103 90

100 93

90

Band 4

120 150 100 120 103

210 250 250 190 245

176 166 155

85 150

156 166 155 415 220

77 135

180 180 160 170 200

70

70 120 133

200

Matrix notation for band 2

1,1, 2,1, 3,1, 4,1, 5,1,
2
2
2
2
2
1,2, 2,2, 3,2, 4,2, 5,2,
2
2
2
2
2
1,3, 2,3, 3,3, 4,3, 5,3,
2
2
2
2
2
1,4, 2,4, 3,4, 4,4, 5,4,
2
2
2
2
2
90 120 150 100 120 103 210 250 250 190 245

10 15

17

20

21 20 50

50

90

15 16

18

21

23 76 66

55

45 120 176 166 155

85 150 156 166 155 415 220

17 18

20

22

22 80 80

60

70 150 85 80

77 135 180 180 160 170 200

18 20

22

24

25 100 93

97 101 105 103 90

70 120 133 200

10 15

17

20

21 15 16

18

21

23 17 18

20

22

20 50

50

90

90 76 66

55

45 120 80 80

60

70 150 100 93

97 101 105

120 150 100 120 103 176 166 155

85 150 85 80

70

77 135 103 90

70 120 133

70

0 123 222 215

22 18 20

210 250 250 190 245 156 166 155 415 220 180 180 160 170 200 200

22

24

25

15 50 150 250

17

50 100 250

20

90 120 190 21

15 76 176 156

16 66 166 166

18

55 155 155

21

45

85 415 23 120 150 220

17 80

18 80 80 180

20

60 70 160

22

70

77 170 22 150 135 200

20 93 90

22

97 70 123

24 101 120 222 25 105 133 215

18 100 103 200

BSQ

0 123 222 215

10 20 120 210
85 180

BIL

90 103 245

BIP

0 123 222 215

Band sequential (BSQ) format stores

information for the image one band at
a time. In other words, data for all
pixels for band 1 is stored first, then
data for all pixels for band 2, and so on.

Band interleaved by pixel (BIP) data is

similar to BIL data, except that the data
for each pixel is written band by band.
For example, with the same three-band
image, the data for bands 1, 2 and 3
are written for the first pixel in column
1; the data for bands 1, 2 and 3 are
written for the first pixel in column 2;
and so on.

Value=image(c, r, b)

Value=image(b, c, r)

Band interleaved by line (BIL) data

stores pixel information band by band
for each line, or row, of the image. For
example, given a three-band image, all
three bands of data are written for row
1, all three bands of data are written
for row 2, and so on, until the total
number of rows in the image is
reached.

Value=image(c, b, r)

What is image processing

Is enhancing an image or extracting

information or features from an image
Computerized routines for information
extraction (eg, pattern recognition,
classification) from remotely sensed
images to obtain categories of
information about specific features.
Many more

Image Processing Includes

Image quality and statistical evaluation

Radiometric correction
Geometric correction
Image enhancement and sharpening
Image classification

Pixel based
Object-oriented based

Accuracy assessment of classification

Post-classification and GIS
Change detection

GEO5083: Remote Sensing Image Processing and Analysis, spring

Image Quality

Many remote sensing datasets contain highquality, accurate data. Unfortunately,

sometimes error (or noise) is introduced into the
remote sensor data by:

the environment (e.g., atmospheric

scattering, cloud),

random or systematic malfunction of the

remote sensing system (e.g., an uncalibrated
detector creates striping), or

improper pre-processing of the remote

sensor data prior to actual data analysis (e.g.,
inaccurate analog-to-digital conversion).

154

155
Cloud
155

160

162
MODIS
True
143

163

164

Clouds in ETM+

Striping Noise and Removal

CPCA
Combined Principle
Component Analysis
Xie et al. 2004

Speckle Noise
and Removal
Blurred objects
and boundary

G-MAP
Gamma Maximum
A Posteriori Filter

Univariate descriptive image

statistics

The mode is the value that

occurs most frequently in a
distribution and is usually
the highest point on the
curve (histogram). It is
common, however, to
encounter more than one
mode in a remote sensing
dataset.
The median is the value
midway in the frequency
distribution. One-half of the
area below the distribution
curve is to the right of the
median, and one-half is to
the left
The mean is the arithmetic
average and is defined as
the sum of all brightness
value observations divided
by the number of

nn

kk

BV
BV
ii11

ikik

nn

Cont
n

Min
Max
Variance
Standard deviation
Coefficient of
variation (CV)
Skewness
Kurtosis
Moment

vark

BV
i 1

ik

n 1

sk k vark
k
CV
k

Multivariate Image Statistics

Remote sensing research is often concerned with

the measurement of how much radiant flux is
reflected or emitted from an object in more than
one band. It is useful to compute multivariate
statistical measures such as covariance and
correlation among the several bands to
determine how the measurements covary.
Variancecovariance and correlation matrices are
used in remote sensing principal components
analysis (PCA), feature selection,
classification and accuracy assessment.

Covariance

The different remote-sensing-derived spectral

measurements for each pixel often change together in
some predictable fashion. If there is no relationship
between the brightness value in one band and that of
another for a given pixel, the values are mutually
independent; that is, an increase or decrease in one
bands brightness value is not accompanied by a
predictable change in another bands brightness value.
Because spectral measurements of individual pixels may
not be independent, some measure of their mutual
interaction is needed. This measure, called the
covariance, is the
jointn variation of two variables about
nn
n
their common mean.
BV
BV
SP

BVikik
BVilil
nn
SP

klkl
i
1
i

1
i 1
cov
BV
SP
cov

SPklkl
BVikikBV
BVilil i 1
klkl

nn
i
nn11
i 11

Correlation

Toestimatethedegreeofinterrelationbetweenvariablesinamannernot
Toestimatethedegreeofinterrelationbetweenvariablesinamannernot
influencedbymeasurementunits,thecorrelationcoefficient,is
influencedbymeasurementunits,thecorrelationcoefficient,is
commonlyused.Thecorrelationbetweentwobandsofremotelysensed
commonlyused.Thecorrelationbetweentwobandsofremotelysensed
data,r
data,rklkl,istheratiooftheircovariance(cov
,istheratiooftheircovariance(covklkl)totheproductoftheir
)totheproductoftheir
standarddeviations(s
standarddeviations(skkssl);thus:
l);thus:

cov
cov
klkl
rrklkl
sskkssll
IfIf we
we square
square the
the correlation
correlation coefficient
coefficient (r(rklkl),), we
we obtain
obtain the
the sample
sample coefficient
coefficient ofof
2
determination
2 which expresses the proportion of the total variation in the values of
determination(r(r),
), which expresses the proportion of the total variation in the values of
band
bandllthat
thatcan
canbe
beaccounted
accountedfor
foror
orexplained
explainedby
byaalinear
linearrelationship
relationshipwith
withthe
thevalues
values
of
ofthe
therandom
randomvariable
variableband
bandk.
k.Thus
Thusaacorrelation
correlationcoefficient
coefficient(r(rklkl))of
of0.70
0.70results
resultsininan
an
rr22value
valueof
of0.49,
0.49,meaning
meaningthat
that49%
49%of
ofthe
thetotal
totalvariation
variationof
ofthe
thevalues
valuesof
ofband
bandllininthe
the
sample
sampleisisaccounted
accountedfor
forby
byaalinear
linearrelationship
relationshipwith
withvalues
valuesof
ofband
bandk.
k.

Pixel

Band 1
(green)

Band 2
(red)

Band 3
(ni)

Band 4
(ni)

(1,1)

130

57

180

205

(1,2)

165

35

215

255

(1,3)

100

25

135

195

(1,4)

135

50

200

220

(1,5)

145

65

205

235

example
SP
SP1212

675
232

675
232
((31
,
860
)

31,860)

540
540 135
cov

cov1212
135
44

Band 1

(Band 1 x
Band 2)

Band 2

130

7,410

57

165

5,775

35

100

2,500

25

135

6,750

50

145

9,425

65

675

31,860

232

55

Band 1

Band 2

Band 3

Band 4

Mean (k)

135

46.40

187

222

Variance
(vark)

562.50

264.80

1007

570

(sk)

23.71

16.27

31.4

23.87

(mink)

100

25

135

195

(maxk)

165

215

255

80

60

65
65 Univariate statistics
40

Range (BVr)

Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Band 1 562.2
5
Band 2

135

Band 3 718.75

Band
1

1007.
50

Band 0.35
2

663.75

570

264.8
0

275.2
5

Band 4 537.50
64
Covariance

Band Band Band Band

1
3
2
4

covariance
0.53
-

Band 0.95
3
coefficient
Band Correlation
0.94 0.16
0.87
4

Types of radiometric correction

Detector error or sensor error (internal error)

Atmospheric error (external error)
Topographic error (external error)

Atmospheric correction
Various
VariousPaths
Pathsofof
Satellite
Received
Satellite ReceivedRadiance
Radiance

There are several ways

to atmospherically
correct remotely sensed
data. Some are
relatively
straightforward while
others are complex,
being founded on
physical principles and
requiring a significant
amount of information
to function properly.
This discussion will
focus on two major
types of atmospheric
correction:

Absolute atmospheric
correction, and
Relative atmospheric
correction.

Scattering, Absorption
Refraction, Reflection

Total radiance L
Total radiance L
S
at the sensor
S
at the sensor

Remote
Remote
sensor
sensor
detector
detector

Solar
E
Solar
E0
irradiance
0
irradiance
Lp L T
Lp L T

90
90

T
T0

2
Diffuse sky
Diffuse sky
irradiance EEd
irradiance
d

T
Tv

1,3,5
1,3,5

v
v

0
0 LLI
I

Reflectance from Reflectance from

Reflectance from Reflectance from
neighboring area,
study area,
neighboring area,
study area,
r
r
rn
r

60 miles
or
100km
Atmosphere
Atmosphere

Absolute atmospheric
correction

Solar radiation is largely unaffected as it travels through the

vacuum of space. When it interacts with the Earths atmosphere,
however, it is selectively scattered and absorbed. The sum of
these two forms of energy loss is called atmospheric
attenuation. Atmospheric attenuation may 1) make it difficult to
relate hand-held in situ spectroradiometer measurements with
remote measurements, 2) make it difficult to extend spectral
signatures through space and time, and (3) have an impact on
classification accuracy within a scene if atmospheric attenuation
varies significantly throughout the image.

The general goal of absolute radiometric correction is to

turn the digital brightness values (or DN) recorded by a remote
sensing system into scaled surface reflectance values. These
values can then be compared or used in conjunction with scaled
surface reflectance values obtained anywhere else on the
planet.

a)Imagecontainingsubstantialhazepriortoatmosphericcorrection.b)Imageafter
a)Imagecontainingsubstantialhazepriortoatmosphericcorrection.b)Imageafter
atmosphericcorrectionusingATCOR(CourtesyLeicaGeosystemsandDLR,the
atmosphericcorrectionusingATCOR(CourtesyLeicaGeosystemsandDLR,the
GermanAerospaceCentre).
GermanAerospaceCentre).

relative radiometric
correction

When required data is not available for

absolute radiometric correction, we can
do relative radiometric correction
Relative radiometric correction may be
used to

Single-image normalization using histogram

adjustment
Multiple-data image normalization using
regression

Single-image normalization
using histogram adjustment

The method is based on the fact that infrared

data (>0.7 m) is free of atmospheric
scattering effects, whereas the visible region
(0.4-0.7 m) is strongly influenced by them.
Use Dark Subtract to apply atmospheric
scattering corrections to the image data. The
digital number to subtract from each band can
be either the band minimum, an average
based upon a user defined region of interest,
or a specific value

Dark Subtract using band

minimum

Topographic correction

Topographic slope and aspect also introduce

radiometric distortion (for example, areas in
shadow)
The goal of a slope-aspect correction is to
remove topographically induced illumination
variation so that two objects having the same
reflectance properties show the same
brightness value (or DN) in the image despite
their different orientation to the Suns position
Based on DEM, sun-elevation

Conceptions of geometric
correction

Geocoding: geographical referencing

Registration: geographically or nongeographically (no coordination system)

Image to Map (or Ground Geocorrection)

The correction of digital images to ground coordinates using ground control
points collected from maps (Topographic map, DLG) or ground GPS points.

Image to Image Geocorrection

Image to Image correction involves matching the coordinate systems or
column and row systems of two digital images with one image acting as a
reference image and the other as the image to be rectified.
Spatial interpolation: from input position to output position or coordinates.

RST (rotation, scale, and transformation), Polynomial, Triangulation

Root Mean Square Error (RMS): The RMS is the error term used to
determine the accuracy of the transformation from one system to another.
It is the difference between the desired output coordinate for a GCP and the
actual.
Intensity (or pixel value) interpolation (also called resampling): The process of
extrapolating data values to a new grid, and is the step in rectifying an image
that calculates pixel values for the rectified grid from the original data grid.

Nearest neighbor, Bilinear, Cubic

Image enhancement

image reduction,
image magnification,
transect extraction,
contrast adjustments (linear and non-linear),
band ratioing,
spatial filtering,
fourier transformations,
principle components analysis,
texture transformations, and
image sharpening

Purposes of image
classification
Land use and land cover (LULC)
Vegetation types
Geologic terrains
Mineral exploration
Alteration mapping
.

What is image
classification or
pattern recognition

Is a process of classifying multispectral (hyperspectral) images into

patterns of varying gray or assigned colors that represent either

clusters of statistically different sets of multiband data, some of which

can be correlated with separable classes/features/materials. This is the
result of Unsupervised Classification, or
numerical discriminators composed of these sets of data that have
been grouped and specified by associating each with a particular class,
etc. whose identity is known independently and which has
representative areas (training sites) within the image where that class
is located. This is the result of Supervised Classification.

Spectral classes are those that are inherent in the remote sensor
data and must be identified and then labeled by the analyst.

Information classes are those that human beings define.

unsupervised classification, The

computer or algorithm automatically
group pixels with similar spectral
characteristics (means, standard
deviations, covariance matrices,
correlation matrices, etc.) into unique
clusters according to some statistically
determined criteria. The analyst then
re-labels and combines the spectral
clusters into information classes.

supervised classification. Identify known a priori

through a combination of fieldwork, map
analysis, and personal experience as training
sites; the spectral characteristics of these sites are
used to train the classification algorithm for
eventual land-cover mapping of the remainder of
the image. Every pixel both within and outside
the training sites is then evaluated and assigned to
the class of which it has the highest likelihood of
being a member.

Hard vs. Fuzzy classification

Supervised and unsupervised classification

algorithms typically use hard classification logic
to produce a classification map that consists of
hard, discrete categories (e.g., forest,
agriculture).

Conversely, it is also possible to use fuzzy set

classification logic, which takes into account the
heterogeneous and imprecise nature (mix pixels)
of the real world. Proportion of the m classes
within a pixel (e.g., 10% bare soil, 10% shrub,
80% forest). Fuzzy classification schemes are not
currently standardized.

Pixel-based vs. Objectoriented classification

In the past, most digital image classification was based on

processing the entire scene pixel by pixel. This is commonly
referred to as per-pixel (pixel-based) classification.

Object-oriented classification techniques allow the analyst

to decompose the scene into many relatively homogenous
image objects (referred to as patches or segments) using a
multi-resolution image segmentation process. The various
statistical characteristics of these homogeneous image
objects in the scene are then subjected to traditional
statistical or fuzzy logic classification. Object-oriented
classification based on image segmentation is often used for
the analysis of high-spatial-resolution imagery (e.g., 1 1 m
Space Imaging IKONOS and 0.610.61 m Digital Globe
QuickBird).

Unsupervised classification

Uses statistical techniques to group n-dimensional data into their

natural spectral clusters, and uses the iterative procedures
label certain clusters as specific information classes
K-mean and ISODATA

For the first iteration arbitrary starting values (i.e., the cluster
properties) have to be selected. These initial values can influence the
outcome of the classification.
In general, both methods assign first arbitrary initial cluster values. The
second step classifies each pixel to the closest cluster. In the third step
the new cluster mean vectors are calculated based on all the pixels in
one cluster. The second and third steps are repeated until the "change"
between the iteration is small. The "change" can be defined in several
different ways, either by measuring the distances of the mean cluster
vector have changed from one iteration to another or by the percentage
of pixels that have changed between iterations.
The ISODATA algorithm has some further refinements by splitting and
merging of clusters. Clusters are merged if either the number of
members (pixel) in a cluster is less than a certain threshold or if the
centers of two clusters are closer than a certain threshold. Clusters are
split into two different clusters if the cluster standard deviation exceeds
a predefined value and the number of members (pixels) is twice the
threshold for the minimum number of members.

Supervised classification:
training sites selection

Based on known a priori through a combination of fieldwork,

map analysis, and personal experience

on-screen selection of polygonal training data (ROI), and/or

on-screen seeding of training data (ENVI does not have

this, Erdas Imagine does).

The seed program begins at a single x, y location and evaluates

neighboring pixel values in all bands of interest. Using criteria
specified by the analyst, the seed algorithm expands outward
like an amoeba as long as it finds pixels with spectral
characteristics similar to the original seed pixel. This is a very
effective way of collecting homogeneous training information.

From spectral library of field measurements

Selecting
ROIs

Alfalfa
Cotton
Grass
Fallow

Supervised classification
methods

Various supervised classification algorithms may be used to assign an unknown pixel to one of m
possible classes. The choice of a particular classifier or decision rule depends on the nature of the
input data and the desired output. Parametric classification algorithms assumes that the
observed measurement vectors Xc obtained for each class in each spectral band during the
training phase of the supervised classification are Gaussian; that is, they are normally distributed.
Nonparametric classification algorithms make no such assumption.

Several widely adopted nonparametric classification algorithms include:

one-dimensional density slicing

parallepiped,

minimum distance,

nearest-neighbor, and

neural network and expert system analysis.

The most widely adopted parametric classification algorithms is the:

maximum likelihood.

Hyperspectral classification methods

Binary Encoding

Spectral Angle Mapper

Matched Filtering

Spectral Feature Fitting

Linear Spectral Unmixing

Supervised
classification
method:

Spectral Feature
Fitting

Source: http://popo.jpl.nasa
.gov/html/data.html

Accuracy assessment of
classification

Remote sensing-derived thematic information are

becoming increasingly important. Unfortunately, they
contain errors.
Errors come from 5 sources:

Geometric error still there

None of atmospheric correction is perfect
Clusters incorrectly labeled after unsupervised classification
Training sites incorrectly labeled before supervised classification
None of classification method is perfect

We should identify the sources of the error, minimize it,

do accuracy assessment, create metadata before being
used in scientific investigations and policy decisions.
We usually need GIS layers to assist our classification.

Post-classification and GIS

saltandpepper

types

Majority/Minority Analysis
Clump Classes
Morphology Filters
Sieve Classes
Combine Classes
Classification to vector (GIS)

Change detection

Change detect involves the use of multi-temporal datasets to

discriminate areas of land cover change between dates of imaging.
Ideally, it requires

Same or similar sensor, resolution, viewing geometry, spectral bands,

radiomatric resolution, acquisition time of data, and anniversary dates
Accurate spatial registration (less than 0.5 pixel error)

Methods

Independently classified and registered, then compare them

Classification of combined multi-temporal datasets,
Principal components analysis of combined multi-temporal datasets
Image differencing (subtracting), (needs to find change/no change
threshold, change area will be in the tails of the histogram distribution)
Image ratioing (dividing), (needs to find change/no change threshold,
change area will be in the tails of the histogram distribution)
Change vector analysis
Delta transformation

Example: stages of
development

Sun
Sun City
City
Hilton
Hilton Head
Head
1994
1994

1996
1996

1974
1,040 urban
hectares
1994
3,263 urban
hectares
315%
increase