ANATOMY

By Dr.Ajish Abraham

Defn -- It is a subject that deals with the

study of the structures and their relations
within the body of a living organism.
Ana means
Apart
Tomy- means to cut

Standard Anatomical position

Common terms used in Anatomy

Anterior
Posterior
Medial
Lateral
Superior/Cranial
Inferior/Caudal
Proximal/Central
Distal/Peripheral

Ipsilateral
Contra lateral
Unilateral
Bilateral
Isolateral
Prone
Supine

Branches

Gross Anatomy Its the study of the macroscopic

details of human body mostly through dissection

Living Anatomy Study of the structures of live

human being using techniques like
palpation,auscultation,percussion etc

Microanatomy/Histology Study of microscopic

details of tissues that make the human body

Surface Anatomy It is a branch which studies the

relation between internal structures of human body
with its surface.

Clinical Anatomy It is application of anatomical

knowledge to clinical practice.

Heircharcy of Cellular organisation

Cell Smallest structural and functional unit

Tissue Group of similar or dissimilar cells performing
common function.
Organ Group of similar or dissimilar tissues
specific function
Organ system Organ with blood vessels like artery, vein
and capillary
Organism Many organ systems working in harmony
under control of brain.

Musculo-Skeletal systems

Skeletal System made of bones

Muscular system- made of muscles

Articular system made of joints

Bone

Def dense.semirigid,porous ,calcified connective

tissue which make up the skeleton.

Cells of the bone

A)Osteoblasts Immature growth cells.
B)Osteoclasts Remodelling cells
C)Osteocytes Mature cells with high calcium
phosphorus salt deposition.

Types of Bones

1)Long bone Central shaft with globular ends

Types of Bones

2) Short bones Small and thick bones

Types of Bones

3) Flat bones Two dimensional and plate like

Types of Bones
4)Irregular bone No geometric shape

Types of Bones
5) Sesamoid bone Bones shaped like sesame
developing in tendons or capsule

Skeletal system
Skeletal numbers
Axial skeleton -80
Appendicular skeleton-126
total bones -206
Engage in voluntary movements-177

Axial skeleton bones along the central axis includes

Skull bones 28 (facial 14,auditory 6 ,cranial 8)
Neck bone
1 (hyoid)
Bones of spine(26 vertebral units)
Flat bones of thorax (Ribs 24 ,sternum 1)
Total 80 bones

Skull,Thorax,Vertebral column

Thoracic Cage

Skeletal system

Appendicular Skeleton it includes the bones of the extremities

Upper body - 64 bones

Clavicle - 2,Scapula - 2,Humerus -2,Radius -2,Ulna
-2,Carpals-16,Metacarpals-10,
Phalanges-28
Lower body 62 bones
Innominates -2,Femur 2,Tibia-2,Fibula-2,
Patella-2,Tarsals-14,Metatarsals-10,Phalanges-28

Total -126 bones

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Radius-Ulna

Carpals,Metacarpals & Phalanges

Innominate

Femur and Patella

Tibia-Fibula

Tarsals,Metatarsals,Phalanges

Musculus in Latin which means a Mouse.

It is a tissue responsible for pulling on the structure to perform work
Types
A)Skeletal Voluntary striated.Muscle attached to the bone
B)Visceral Involuntary non striated/smooth.Muscle of organs
C)Cardiac Involuntary branched striated.Muscle of heart

TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS

Characteristics

TYPE 1-Slow twitch

TYPE 2A - Fast
Intermediate twitch

TYPE 2B FastFastest twitch

Diameter
Fatigue
Force
Generation

Small
Low
Low

Moderate
Moderate
Moderate

Large
High
High

Mitochondrion
Energy System

High
Aerobic

Low
Anaerobic lactic
acid

Absent
Anaerobic-CpATP

Classification of skeletal muscle according to

muscle fiber arrangement
Parallel arrangement
A)Fusiform muscles
B)Longitudinal/Flat muscles
C)Quadrate muscles
D) Fan shaped

Pennate arrangement
A)Unipennate
B)Bipennate
C)Multipennate

Muscle names according to location

1)Sub-Scapularis
Sub - Below
Scapularis Scapula
2)Pectoralis Major
Pectoralis Muscle of chest
3)Illiacus muscle of illum

Major Big

Muscle names according to shape

Trapezius Kite shaped

Rhomboids Rhombus shaped

Muscle names according to role

Erector Spinae Keep spine erect
Levator Scapulae elevates scapula

Functional Classification of muscles

A)Prime movers/Agonist/Primary muscles

B)Synergists/Assistors/Secondary muscles
C)Stabilizors/Fixators
D)Antagonists

Micro Anatomy of skeletal muscle

Sarcomere

Flow chart

Sarcomere

Sarcomere groups(in series)

Myofibril

Myofibril bundles

Fasculi

Fasculi bundles

Muscle fiber

Muscle fiber bundles

Muscle

Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a fibrous fluid network

which has calcium ion
Proteins within sarcomere
Myosin (thick filament)
Actin (thin filament)
Proteins within Actin filament
Troponin which is a calcium binder
Tropomyosin Its bound to troponin to form a
complex

Cross Bridge theory or sliding filament

theory of muscle contraction

During muscle contraction

Signal from brain reaches muscle via nerves

Calcium released from sarcoplasmic reticulum deep into
muscle
Calcium binds to troponin
Troponin pull tropomyosin to expose binding site on actin
Myosin heads attach to binding site and walk past closer to
the end on actin by a series of attachment and detachment
using ATP
This looks like Cross Bridging or the filament looks to
slide over each other

During muscle relaxation

Electric signal to muscle stopped
Calcium to troponin bind brakes
Tropomyosin returns back to close binding site
Bond between actin and myosin heads break
Due to elasticity the return back to original shape.

Properties of muscle

1)Excitability/Irritability
2)Contractility
3)Extensibility
4)Elasticity
5)Tonicity

Types of contractions

1)Isotonic
A)Concentric
B)Eccentric

2)Isometric

3)Isokinetic

Anatomic adaptations in muscles

1)Hypertrophy

2)Hyperplasia

3)Atrophy

4)Dystrophy

Nervous system
Central nervous system It consist of brain and
spinal cord.It is the primary site for receiving
sensory stimuli and center from which signals are
sent for motor response
Peripheral nervous system These are the nerves
associate with the brain and spinal cord which allow
the brain and spinal cord to communicate with rest
of the body

Autonomic nervous system This system consist of

the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways
which help the body to regulate the subconcious
drives like heart rate ,breathing , muscular tone etc .

Neuro-Muscular control

The information received and sent by the nerves are

in the form of electric energy called Nerve Impulse.
The end where the nerve communicates with the
muscle is called neuromuscular junction.Here the
nerve endings release excitatory chemical called
Acetylcholine.
A nerve which reaches the muscle divides into
branches and goes deeper into muscle.Individual
branches control few muscle fibers within its
capacity.

The branch of nerve and its associated muscle fibers

is called a Motor Unit.
Large motor units contain about 1,000 muscle fibers
and is used for strength
Small motor units contain less than 50 muscle fibers
and are used for accuracy of movement
Medium motor units contain about 100 to 400
muscle fibers and are used for activities that require
moderate strength and accuracy.

Properties of motor units

All or none principle

Selective recruitment
Post activation potentiation

Connective tissues

1)Cartilage These are made of chondrocytes and the spaces in

between filled with collagen and elastin fibers
Types
A)Hyaline cartilage Semirigid moderately dense cartilage
having proportionate collagen and elastin.Eg articular cartilage
at ends of bones
B)Fibrous cartilage Semirigid and dense cartilage with more
collagen fibers than elastin
Eg joint at the pubis
C)Elastic cartilage Flexible and thin cartilage made of more
elastin than collagen
Eg)pinna of ears

Ligaments Fibrous connective tissue which joints

bone to bone

Tendons Fibrous connective tissue which connects

muscle to bone

Fascia Thin transparent membrane which covers

muscle or muscle groups.

Proprioceptors

1)Golgi tendon organs located at the ends of

tendons which detect and inhibit excess muscular
tension
2)Muscle spindle fibers They lie parallel to muscle
fibers and inhibit excessive or rapid stretching of
muscles