STATISTICS

Statistics is a field of study concern with:

Framing of questions to be answered by collecting data

Designing of all relevant data is to be collected
Summarization of data (Frequency Distribution)
Analysis of data
Draw conclusion, drawing of conclusion of data
Presentation of conclusion.
OR
Statistics is the science of making effective use of
numerical data relating to groups of individuals or
experiments. It deals with all aspects of this, including
not only the collection, analysis and interpretation of
such data, but also the planning of the collection of
data, in terms of the design of surveys and
experiments.

DISCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics deals with
collection of data ,its presentation in various
forms, such as tables, graphs and diagrams
and finding averages and other measures
which would describe the data. The purpose
of descriptive statistics is to present the
information in such a way as can readily help the
decision makers.
Example:
A BIOSTATISTICIAN make use of descriptive statistics in
presenting their annual reports.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Inferential Statistics is the branch of
statistics which deals with procedure of
drawing inferences about the population
on the basis of information obtain from
sample.

POPULATION & SAMPLE

Population:
A statistical population is defined as the aggregate or
totality of all individual members or objects" whether
finite or infinite, relevant to some characteristics of
interest.
Sample:
It is a small part of population which represents the
characteristics of Population.

VARIABLE & CONSTANT

Variable:
A measurable quantity which can vary from one individual or
object to another is called a Variable.
Example: heights and weights of individuals, no of
children in a family.
Constant:
A quantity which can assume only one value is called a
Constant.
Examples: = 3.14159,e = 2.71828, etc.

DISCRETE & CONTINUOUS

VARIABLES
Discrete Variable:
A variable which can assume only some specific values within
a given range is called a Discrete Variable.
Example: no of children in a family can be
0,1,2,but cannot be 2.5 or 3.84.
Continuous Variable:
A variable which can assume any value within a given range is
called a Continuous Variable.
Example: heights and weights of individuals .

QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE

VARIABLES
Quantitative Variable:
A variable is called is called a Quantitative Variable
when a characteristic can be expressed numerically
such as age, weight, no of students, etc.
Qualitative Variable:
If the characteristic is non-numerical such as education,
sex, eye-color, quality, satisfaction etc. the variable is
referred to as a Qualitative Variable.
A qualitative characteristic is also called an Attribute.

PRIMARY & SECONDARY DATA

Primary Data:
Data that have been originally collected(raw data) and have
not undergone any sort of statistical treatment, are called
Primary Data.
Secondary Data:
Secondary data are a sequence of observations that have
undergone any sort of treatment by statistical methods at
least once, i.e. the data have been collected, classified,
tabulated or presented in some form for a certain purpose ,
are called Secondary Data.

TABULATION
A table is a systematic arrangement of data
into vertical columns and horizontal rows.
The process of arranging data into rows and
columns is called Tabulation.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
A Frequency Distribution is a tabular
arrangement of the data which shows the
distribution of observations among different
classes.

Example
The birth weights(kg) of 30
children were recorded as follows:
2.0,2.1,2.3,3.0,3.1,2.7,2.8,4.0,2.3,
3.5,4.2, 3.7,3.2,2.7,3.1,3.0,2.9,2.8,
2.9,3.5,4.1,3.5,3.5,3.7,2.5,2.7,3.8,
3.9,2.8,2.2.

Classes

Tally Mark

Frequency

2.0 - 2.3

IIII

2.4 2.7

IIII

2.8 3.1

llll llll

10

Construct Frequency Distribution?

3.2 3.5

IIII

n = 30
Range = Max value Min value
= 4.2 2 = 2.2
No of Classes = k = 1 + 3.3 log n
= 1 + 3.3 log 30 = 6 classes
Class interval = h = Range / No of classes
h = 2.2 / 6 = 0.4

3.6 3.9

IIII

4.0 4.3

III

Total

30

CHARTS OR DIAGRAM
Like graphs, charts or diagram give visual
representations of magnitudes, trends and
patterns in the data. Diagrams also show
comparisons between two or more sets of data.
Most commonly charts used in Statistics:

Simple Bar Chart

Multiple Bar Chart
Pie Chart

Simple Bar Chart

Example
Country

Population
(million)

China

1088

India

816

Indonesia

175

Japan

123

Pakistan

106

Multiple Bar Chart

Example
Division

Male

Female

Rawalpindi

23

21

Bahawalpur

24

23

Multan

39

36

Gujranwala

39

37

Lahore

44

43

Pie Chart
Example
All 36 Districts of Punjab
have
reported
in
November, 2009
Facilities

Percentage

Reported

87

Non
Reported

13

Measures of Central Tendency

or
Average
A value which is used in this way to represent
the distribution is called an Average. Since the
averages tend to lie in the centre of a distribution
they are called Measures of Central Tendency.
They are also called measures of location
because they locate the centre of a distribution.

Types of Averages
The most commonly used averages are:
(i) The Arithmetic Mean
(ii) The Median
(iii) The Mode

Arithmetic Mean
The Arithmetic Mean or
simply mean is defined
as a value obtained by
dividing the sum of all the
observations by their
number, that is

Example:
The weights (kg) of 9
students are given below:
45,32,37,46,39,36,41,48,36.
Calculate the Mean.
Formula:
Mean =
45+32+37+46+39+36+41+48+36
9
Mean = 40 kg

Median
The Median of a set of values
arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude
is defined as the middle value
if the number of values is odd
and the mean of the two
middle values if the number of
values is even. The median
divides a distribution into two
halves and the number of
values greater than the median
is equal to the number of
values smaller than the
median.

Example:
a) 4,5,6,8,10,11,12
When the number of values is
odd, the median is the middle
value that is 8.
b) When the number of values is
even, the median is the mean
of the two middle values i.e.
Median = (7+9) = 8
2

Mode
The Mode is defined as
a value which occurs
most frequently in a set of
data, that is it indicates
the most common result.

Examples:
The observations are
(i) 1,2,3,4,3,5
The mode is 3
(ii) 2,4,4,6,6,7
The mode is 4 and 6
(iii) 2,4,6,8,10
Mode does not exist so
mode is zero.

Variance and Standard Deviation

Variance:
Standard Deviation:
The Variance of a
The positive square
set of observations is
root of the variance is
defined as the mean
called
Standard
of the squares of
Deviation.
deviations of all the
Formula:
observations
from
their mean.
Formula:

VITAL STATISTICS
There are some factors which cause changes in
the size and composition of human population,
e.g., births add and deaths take away some
member of the population. Such factors are
called Vital Events, and they include births,
deaths, migrations (which change the size of the
population), sickness, etc. (which affect the
population
composition).
The
collection,
presentation and analysis of vital events
constitute Vital Statistics.

Percentage
A percentage is simply another way of
expressing a fraction. In percentage, the base
(denominator) is always 100.
Percentage
means per 100.
To turn a fraction into a percentage it should be
multiplied by 100. For example:

1/5
1/3
1

=
=
=

1/5 x 100 = 20%

1/3 x 100 = 33.3%
1 x 100 = 100%

Rates and Ratios

Rate
A rate is a type of ratio which in vital statistics may be defined as a
numerical proportion of the number of vital events to the population
in which the events took place. In other words,

Rates =

a +b
where a stands for the no of times the given vital event occurs, and
b is the number of times, the event which does not occur.

Crude Death Rate

The crude death rate may be defined as a ratio of total
register deaths of sum specified year to the total midyear
population in the same year, multiplied by thousands.
C.D.R =

D x 1000
P
where D denotes the total no of death from all causes
during a calendar year, and
P denotes the midyear total population during the same
year.

Example
AGE GROUP
YEARS

LOCAL
POPULATION

NO OF DEATHS
IN LOCAL
POPULATION

0-9

400

16

10-19

1500

20-59

2400

24

60-over

700

21

Total

5000

67

C.R.D of the local Population is

C.D.R = 67 / 5000 = 13.4

Infant Mortality Rate

It is defined as a ratio of registered deaths of infants during a
specified year to the total live births registered in the same
year.

I.M.R =

d0 x 1000
B

where do denotes the no of deaths under one year of age

registered during a given year in a locality, and
B denotes the no of life births registered during the same
year in the locality.

Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

MMR is the number of deaths assigned to causes
related to pregnancy (maternal deaths) during a
given year per 1000 live births reported during the
same year in a given area (country, region, or
district).
MMR =
No of maternal deaths in a given year

100,000
Total # of live births reported during the same year

Crude Birth Rate

It is a ratio of total registered live births during a
calendar year to the total midyear population during
the same year and multiplied by 1000. it is computed
by the formula
C.B.R =

B x 1000
P
where B denotes the total no of live births registered
during a given year, and
P denotes the midyear total population during the
same year.

Continue
Incidence Rate:
A rate calculated as the number of incidence cases over a define
study period divided by the population at risk at mid point of that
period.
Incidence Rate = No of new cases during a specified time
Total mid period population at risk
Prevalence Rate:
The proportion of a population that has a defined disease or
condition at a particular point in time.
Point Prevalence Rate = No of existing cases at a specified point in time
Total mid year population
Period Prevalence Rate = No of existing cases at a specified period in time
Total mid year population

Ratio
The ratio of one number, a to another number c is defined by
a divided by c. It thus indicates the relative size of two
members.
Ratio = a
c
a denotes the number of times the given kind of event occurs,
and
c denotes the number of times and another event occurs.

Important type of Ratios in

Vital Statistics
1)
2)
3)

Sex Ratio
Child- woman Ratio
Birth-death ratio/Vital index

Sex Ratio
The ratio between males and females in a human
population, is called a Sex Ratio. It is computed by
dividing the number of males in a population by the number
of females in the same population and the result is
expressed in %.
It is computed by the formula:
Sex Ratio = No of Males
x 100
No of Females

Child-Women Ratio
The ratio between children under 5 years of age and the
woman of child bearing age is called a Child Women
Ratio. The child bearing age is defined sometimes by the
age group 15-44 and sometimes by age group 15-49.
It is computed by the formula:
Child-Women Ratio =

P(0-4) x 1000
f (15-44)
where P(0-4) denotes the no of children, both sexes
combined, under 5 years of age, and
f(15-44) denotes the no of females between ages 15-44 or
15-49.

Birth-Death Ratio
OR

Vital Index
The ratio between the total number of births and the total
number of deaths of a population during a particular year is
called Birth-Death Ratio or Vital Index.
It is computed by the formula:
Vital Index =

Total No of Births

Total No of Deaths

x 100

Indicators
Indicators are items which can be measured to
indicate how your programme is doing.
You will learn to calculate the following indicators:

Antenatal coverage
Average number of visits per new case
Measles incidence rate

Indicators contd
To calculate the antenatal coverage, use the formula
No. of new antenatal attendees
No. of estimated births

x 100

This tells you the % of pregnant women who received antenatal care.
Example: 241 estimated births last year.
registrations.

110 new antenatal

Answer: 110 x 100 = 46% of pregnant women received

241 antenatal care

Indicators contd
To calculate the average number of visits by patients,
use the formula
No. of total visits (new + old) x 100
No. of new cases
This tells you how many times a patient comes to a
health facility for one episode of illness.
Example: 110 new cases, 200 old cases.
Answer:

110 + 200 x 100

110

Indicators contd
To calculate the measles incidence rate, use
the formula
No. measles cases x 100
Population
This tells you how many people, out of each
1000 had measles.