Fatigue and Impact

Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact
All machine and structural

designs are problems in fatigue
because the forces of Nature are
always at work and each object
must respond in some fashion.
Carl Osgood, Fatigue Design
Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

28, 1988. The midflight fuselage failure was attributed to
corrosion-assisted fatigue. (Steven Minkowski/Gamma
Liaison)
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
2014 CRC Press
On the Bridge!
Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

warning the populace that death was waiting for them on the next bridge. Note
the cracks in the iron bridge.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.1: Methods to

Maximize Fatigue Life
1. Minimizing initial flaws, especially surface flaws. Great care is taken to produce
fatigue-resistant surfaces through processes such as grinding or polishing
that produce exceptionally smooth surfaces. These surfaces are then carefully
protected before a product is placed into service.
2. Maximizing crack initiation time. Compressive surface residual stresses are
imparted (or at least tensile residual stresses are relieved) through
manufacturing processes such as shot peening or burnishing, or by a number
of surface treatments.
3. Maximizing crack propagation time. Substrate properties, especially those that
retard crack growth, are also important. For example, in some materials
fatigue cracks will propagate more quickly along grain boundaries than
through grains. In this case, using a material that has elongated grains
transverse to the direction of fatigue crack growth can extend fatigue life
(e.g., by using cold-worked components instead of castings).
4. Maximizing the critical crack length. Fracture toughness (Section 6.5) is an
essential material property, and materials with higher fracture toughnesses
are generally better suited for fatigue applications.
2014 CRC Press
Cyclic Stresses
Mean stress:
Stress range:
Stress amplitude:
Figure 7.2: Variation in nonzero cyclic

mean stress.
Stress ratio:

2014 CRC Press
Cyclic Properties of Metals

Material
Steel
Conditiona
1015
Normalized
4340
Tempered
1045
Q&T 306 F
1045
Q&T 500 F
1045
Q&T 600 F
4142
Q&T 400 F
4142
Q&T 600 F
4142
Q&T 700 F
4142
Q&T 840 F
Aluminum
1100
Annealed
2014
T6
2024
T351
5456
H311
7075
T6
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V
Solution treated+aged
Nickel
Inconel X
Annealed
a Q&T - Quenched and tempered.
Yield
strength
Sy ,
MPa
Fracture
strength
f,
MPa
Fatigue
ductility
coeffic
i ent ,
f
Fatigue
strength
exponent,
a
Fatigue
ductility
exponent,
228
1172
1720
1275
965
1720
1340
1070
900
827
1655
2720
2275
1790
2650
2170
2000
1550
0.95
0.73
0.07
0.25
0.35
0.07
0.09
0.40
0.45
-0.110
-0.076
-0.055
-0.080
-0.070
-0.076
-0.081
-0.080
-0.080
-0.64
-0.62
-0.60
-0.68
-0.69
-0.76
-0.66
-0.73
-0.75
97
462
379
234
469
193
848
1103
724
1317
1.80
0.42
0.22
0.46
0.19
-0.106
-0.106
-0.124
-0.110
-0.126
-0.69
-0.65
-0.59
-0.67
-0.52
1185
2030
0.841
-0.104
-0.69
700
2255
1.16
-0.117
-0.75
Table 7.1: Cyclic properties of some metals. Source: After Shigley and Mitchell
[1983] and Suresh [1998].

2014 CRC Press
Common Stress Patterns and R.R. Moore

Test Specimen
Four frequently encountered patterns
of constant-amplitude cyclic stress
are:
1. Completely reversed: (m = 0, R =
-1)
2. Nonzero mean: (as shown in Fig.
7.2)
3. Released tension: (min = 0, R = 0,
m = max/2)
4. Released compression: (max= 0,
R = , m = min/2.
Figure 7.3: R.R. Moore machine

fatigue test specimen.
Dimensions in inches.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth
Figure 7.4: Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a fatigue crack for two
different stress ratios as a function of the number of cycles; (b) rate of crack growth,
illustrating three regimes.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth Notes

Strain-life theory (Manson-Coffin relationship):
Regimes of Crack Growth:

1. Regime A is a period of very slow crack growth. Note that the crack
growth rate can be even smaller than an atomic spacing of the
material per cycle.
2. Regime B is a period of moderate crack growth rate, often referred to
as the Paris regime
3. Regime C is a period of high-growth rate, where the maximum stress
intensity factor for the fatigue cycle approaches the fracture
toughness of the material.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Striations
Figure 7.5: Cross section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or beachmarks
originating from a fatigue crack at B. Source: Rimnac, C., et al., in ASTM STP 918, Case
Histories Involving Fatigue and Fracture, copyright 1986, ASTM International. Reprinted
with permission.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Fracture
Surfaces
Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

surfaces of smooth and notched crosssections under different loading
conditions and stress levels. Source:
Metals Handbook, American Society for
Metals [1975].

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength Ferrous Alloys

For steels:
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

number of loading cycles. (a) Ferrous alloys,
showing clear endurance limit; Source: Adapted
from Lipson and Juvinall [1963].

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength Nonferrous Alloys
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

aluminum alloys, with less pronounced knee and no endurance limit. Source:
Adapted from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength - Polymers
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

selected properties of assorted polymer classes. Source: Adapted from Norton
[1996]

2014 CRC Press
Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate Strength
Figure 7.8: Endurance limit as function of ultimate strength for wrought steels.
Source: Adapted from Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

2014 CRC Press
Staircase Approach
Design Procedure 7.2: Staircase Approach
Figure 7.9: Typical results from fatigue

tests using the staircase approach, and
used in Example 7.2.
1. A designer must first estimate the

endurance limit for the material of
interest, either with a strength-based
approach such as in Eq. (7.6), or
through preliminary testing.
2. A test interval is then selected, typically
around 10% of the estimated endurance
limit.
3. An initial test is performed at a stress
level equal to the expected endurance
limit.
4. If the specimen breaks, it is recorded as
such and the next experiment will be
performed at a stress level reduced by
the stress interval.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.2 (concluded)

5. At the desired duration (commonly 106 or 107 cycles), the test is stopped. If the
specimen survives, it is recorded as such and the next experiment will be performed
at a stress level increased by the stress interval.
6. A plot of typical results is shown in Fig. 7.9.
7. The mean endurance limit can be obtained from the following steps:
a.
Count the number of failures and survivals in the test results. Proceed with
the analysis using the less common test result.
b. The number of events (failures or survivals) is assigned to ni for each stress level
i. In this approach, the lowest stress level is denoted as o, the next highest as 1,
etc.
c. Obtain the quantity An from
d. The endurance limit is then estimated from
where the plus sign is used if the more common experimental result is survival,
and the minus sign is used if the more common event is failure.
8. It is recommended that at least 15 experiments be performed, although more can be
helpful for more accurate quantification of the endurance limit.

2014 CRC Press
Endurance Limit for Materials
Table 7.2: Approximate endurance limit for various materials. Source: Adapted
from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

2014 CRC Press
Finite Life Fatigue

Low cycle (below around
1000 cycles):
High cycle, finite life (between

around 1000 and 1 million cycles)
where

2014 CRC Press
Notch Sensitivity
Fatigue stress
concentration
factor:
Figure 7.10: Notch sensitivity as function of notch radius for several materials
and types of loading. Source: Adapted from Sines and Waisman [1959].

2014 CRC Press
Modified Endurance Limit

The modified endurance limit can be estimated from an R.R. Moore
idealized specimen from:
This is strictly true only for carbon steels.

Correction factors can be estimated from empirical relations. Experimental
verification of designs is usually required.

2014 CRC Press
Surface Finish Correction

Mathematical estimate:
Note: not based on curve fit of
Fig. 7.11.
Manufacturing
process
Grinding
Machining or
cold drawing
Hot rolling
As forged
Factor e
MPa
ksi
1.58
1.34
4.51
2.70
57.7
272.0
14.4
39.9
Exponent f
-0.085
-0.265
-0.718
-0.995
Table 7.3: Surface finish factor. Source:

Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

2014 CRC Press
Surface Finish Correction
Figure 7.11: Surface finish factors for steel. (a) As function of ultimate strength in
tension for different manufacturing processes; Source: (a) Adapted from Norton
[2011] and data from the American Iron and Steel Institute.
(b) As function of ultimate strength and surface roughness as measured with a
stylus profilometer. Source: (b) adapted from Johnson [1967].

2014 CRC Press
Reliability, Size and Temperature Factor

Reliability Factor:
For a standard deviation of 8% of
the mean:
Probability
of survival,
percent
50
90
95
99
99.9
99.99
Reliability
factor,
kr
1.00
0.90
0.87
0.82
0.75
0.70
Table 7.4: Reliability factors

for six probabilities of
survival.
Size Factor:
d depends on manufacturing
process, but one approach allows
estimation from the equivalent area
where the stress is above 95% of the
maximum stress:
Temperature Factor:

2014 CRC Press
Shot Peening Effect
Figure 7.12: The use of shot peening to improve fatigue properties. (a) Fatigue strength
at 2 x 106 cycles for high-strength steel as a function of ultimate strength; (b) typical S-N
curves for non-ferrous metals. Source: Courtesy of J.~Champaigne, Electronics, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.3:

Determination of Endurance Limit
If an experimental investigation is impractical, the endurance limit can be estimated through
the following procedure:
1. The endurance limit for a specimen (Se) can be estimated for a type of loading from Eq.
(7.6). This requires knowledge of the material's ultimate strength, which can be obtained
from experiments or from tables of mechanical properties; some steel properties are
summarized in Appendix A.
2. Note from Fig. 7.8 that the predicted value should not be assigned a value greater than 690
MPa (100 ksi).
3. The modified endurance limit (Se) is then obtained from Eq. (7.18), where:
a. The surface finish factor, kf, is obtained from Eq. (7.19) using coefficients from Table
7.3, or else kf can be estimated from Fig. 7.11.
b. The size factor, ks, can be estimated from Eq. (7.20) for bending or torsion, with ks=1
for tension. If the part is not round, then an equivalent diameter can be obtained from
Eq. (7.21). These equations have high uncertainty, but they do allow size effects to be
considered without overly complicating the mathematics.
c. The reliability factor, kr, can be obtained from Table 7.4.
d. The effects of temperature, kt, are best obtained experimentally, but Eq.~(7.23) gives a
reasonable estimate
this factor.
Fundamentals
of for
Machine
Elements, 3rd ed.
2014 CRC Press
Examples 7.5 and 7.6
Figure 7.13: Round shaft with a

retaining ring groove considered in
Example 7.5. All dimensions are in
millimeters.
Figure 7.14: Drawn square profile with

machined groove considered in
Example 7.6. All dimensions are in
millimeters.

2014 CRC Press
Haigh Diagram
Figure 7.15: A typical Haigh diagram showing constant life curves for different
combinations of mean and alternating stresses.

2014 CRC Press
Nonzero Mean Stress

Gerber:
Goodman:
Soderberg:
Figure 7.16: Influence of nonzero mean stress

on fatigue life for tensile loading as estimated
by four empirical relationships.

2014 CRC Press
Modified Goodman Equations
Table 7.5: Equations and range of

applicability for construction of
complete modified Goodman
diagram.

2014 CRC Press
Modified Goodman Diagram
Figure 7.17: Complete modified Goodman diagram, plotting stress as ordinate

and mean stress as abscissa.

2014 CRC Press
Modified Goodman Equations
Table 7.6: Failure equations and validity limits of equations for four regions of
complete modified Goodman relationship

2014 CRC Press
Alternating Stress Ratio
Figure 7.18: Alternating stress ratio as function of mean stress ratio for axially
loaded cast iron.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth Data
Figure 7.19: Fatigue crack growth data for a variety of materials. (a) Selected
polymers in comparison to aluminum and steel; (b) selected metal alloys. {\it
Source:} From Bowman [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Paris Law Data

Paris law:
Table 7.6: Paris Law constants for various classes of

steel. Data represents worst-case (fastest) crack growth
rates reported for the material classes. Source: From
Dowling [2007].

2014 CRC Press
Dynamic Mechanical Properties
Figure 7.20: Mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature as function

of average strain rate.

2014 CRC Press
Example 7.11
Figure 7.21: Diver impacting diving board, used in Example 7.11. (a) Side view;
(b) front view; (c) side view showing forces and coordinates.

2014 CRC Press
D-Check
Figure 7.22: (a) Exterior view of Boeing 747-400 during a D check; (b) inspection
of landing gear component for structural integrity. Source: Courtesy of Lufthansa
Technik.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue and Impact

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fatigue and Impact

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact

All machine and structural

Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Design Procedure 7.1: Methods to

Figure 7.2: Variation in nonzero cyclic

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Cyclic Properties of Metals

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Common Stress Patterns and R.R. Moore

Figure 7.3: R.R. Moore machine

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue Crack Growth

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue Crack Growth Notes

Regimes of Crack Growth:

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue Strength Ferrous Alloys

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue Strength Nonferrous Alloys

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue Strength - Polymers

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate Strength

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Figure 7.9: Typical results from fatigue

1. A designer must first estimate the

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Design Procedure 7.2 (concluded)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Endurance Limit for Materials

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Finite Life Fatigue

High cycle, finite life (between

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Modified Endurance Limit