SkinnersAnalysisofMotivation:

TenApplicationsfor
ImprovingAutismTreatment

MarkL.Sundberg,Ph.D.,BCBAD
(www.marksundberg.com)

Motivation

Motivationisamajortopicinpsychology,especiallyapplied
psychology
AGooglesearchofmotivationproduced257millionhits
42millionforreinforcement
7millionforstimuluscontrol
97,000fordiscriminativestimulus(SD)
Behavioristsarerarelycreditedforanypositivecontributiontothe
studyofmotivation
Infact,discussionsofbehavioralapproachestomotivationareusually
misguidedandpejorative(e.g.,DanPinksTEDpresentation,Son
Risevs.ABA)

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

AnoftenmissedelementofSkinnerianpsychologyisthatmotivational
controlisanantecedentvariablethatisdifferentfromstimuluscontrol
andreinforcement(Skinner,1938,1953,1957)
InBehaviorofOrganisms(Skinner,1938)Skinnerdevotedtwofull
chapterstomotivation;Chapter9titledDriveandChapter10titled
DriveandConditioning:TheInteractionofTwoVariables
ScienceandHumanBehavior(1953)hadthreechaptersonmotivation
KellerandSchoenfeld(1950)stated,Adrive[motivation]isnota
stimulusadrivehasneitherthestatus,northefunctions,northe
placeinareflex[behavior]thatastimulushasitisnot,initselfeither
eliciting,reinforcing,ordiscriminative(p.276)
KellerandSchoenfeldsuggestedthetermestablishingoperationbe
usedfordrivetodistinguishitfromthevarioustypesofstimuli

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

ThestudyofmotivationwasnotcarriedthroughtoAppliedBehavior
Analysisinthe1960s,70s,&80s
Michael(1993)pointedout,Inappliedbehavioranalysistheconcept
ofreinforcementseemstohavetakenovermuchofthesubjectmatter
thatwasonceconsideredapartofthetopicofmotivation(p.191)
Appliedresearchonmotivationisvirtuallynonexistentinthefirst20
yearsoftheJournalofAppliedBehaviorAnalysis(JABA)
TheJournalcontainednoentriesforestablishingoperationsor
motivationinthefirstcumulativeindex(19681978)
Duringthenext10years(19791988)therewerestillnoentriesfor
establishingoperation.However,therewere5entriesfor
motivation,buttheyallinvolvedmotivationasaconsequence,
ratherthanasanantecedentvariable

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

Inaddition,theexperimentalanalysisofmotivationismostlyabsent
fromthe57yearsofresearchintheJournaloftheExperimental
AnalysisofBehavior(JEAB)
Michael(1993)notedthatthebasicnotion[MO]playsonlyasmall
roleintheapproachcurrentlyidentifiedasbehavioranalysis(p.191)
Butmostimportantly,theneglectofmotivationleavesagapinour
understandingofoperantfunctionalrelations(Michael,1993,p.191)

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

Skinnerdiscussedthetopicofmotivationineverychapterofthebook
VerbalBehavior(1957),usuallywithhispreferredterminologyof
deprivation,satiation,andaversivestimulation
ThirtypointsaboutmotivationfromSkinnersbookVerbal
Behavior(Sundberg,2013)

ThirtyPointsAboutMotivationfrom
SkinnersBook
VerbalBehavior(Sundberg,2013)

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

Skinnerdiscussedthetopicofmotivationineverychapterofthebook
VerbalBehavior(1957),usuallywithhispreferredterminologyof
deprivation,satiation,andaversivestimulation
ThirtypointsaboutmotivationfromSkinnersbookVerbalBehavior
(Sundberg,2013)
JackMichaelandcolleagueshavepublishedvariousrefinementsand
extensionsofSkinnersanalysis(Laraway,Snycerski,Michael,&
Poling,2003;Michael,1982,1988,1993,2000,2004,2007)
Discriminativevariables(SDs)arerelatedtothedifferential
availabilityofaneffectiveformofreinforcementgivenaparticular
typeofbehavior;motivativevariablesarerelatedtothedifferential
reinforcingeffectivenessofenvironmentalevents(Michael,1993p.
193)(seealsoMichael,1982)

EstablishingOperations
(Michael,1993)

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation

Motivation,inlayterms,isoftentalkedaboutaswantingorneeding
thingsorevents
Forexample,fooddeprivation
Therearetwobehavioraleffectsinvolved
1)thevalueoffoodbecomesstronger
2)foodseekingbehaviorsareevoked
Or,beinghighlymotivatedtosearchtheinternetforClubPenguin
Twobehavioraleffects
1)thevalueofacomputerandawebsiteaddressbecomesstronger
2)websearchingbehaviorsareevoked
Whenvaluesarelow(satiation,orwebsitefound)behaviorisabated

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation:
Michaels(2007)Framework

Anincreaseinthevalueoffoodorawebsiteurlistermedan
establishingoperation(EO)whileadecreaseinthevalueistermed
anabolishingoperation(AO)
Thetermmotivatingoperations(MOs)isanomnibustermforthese
valuechangingeffects(EOsandAOs)
Thevaluechangestheninturnaffectbehavior(valuealteringeffect)
EOsevokespecificbehaviors,AOsabatespecificbehaviors
(behavioralteringeffect)
Michaelsdefinitionofmotivation:anyenvironmentalvariablethat
(a)alterstheeffectivenessofsomestimulus,object,oreventasa
reinforcerand(b)altersthecurrentfrequencyofallbehaviorthathas
beenreinforcedbythatstimulus,object,orevent(2007,p.375)

MichaelsChapteronMotivatingOperations
inCooperetal.(2007)

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation:
Summary

MOsconstituteaseparatebasicprincipleofbehavior
MOsareantecedentevents,notconsequences
AlltypesofMOsareseparatefromstimuluscontrol
MOsandSDsfrequentlyoccurtogetherasformsofmultiplecontrol

TheBasicPrinciplesof
OperantBehavior
StimulusControl(SD)
MotivatingOperation(MO)

Response

Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Conditionedreinforcement
Conditionedpunishment
Intermittentreinforcement

ABehavioralAnalysisofMotivation:
Summary

AlltypesofMOsareseparatefrom,butrelatedto,reinforcement
MOseffectsareseparatefromschedulesofreinforcementeffects
AversivestimulationcanfunctionasMOs
Aversivestimulationasanantecedent(anMO)isdifferentfrom
aversivestimulationasaconsequence(punishment)
EscapeandavoidanceareMOeffects,notSDeffects
MOsmayinvolveunconditionedorconditionedvariables
AsingleMOcancontrollargerepertoires(e.g.,revenge)
MOsaretypicallyprivateevents
CollateralbehaviorcanhelptodetermineMOlevel(e.g.,reaching)
MuchofwhatistermedemotioninvolvesMOs(S&HB,chap.10)

TheApplicationofEstablishingOperations
(Sundberg,1993)

Application1:MOsasAntecedentsProvide
anAdditionalToolfor
AssessmentandIntervention

MOsplayasignificantroleinmultiplefacetsoftheassessmentand
interventionprocessforchildrenwithautism
MOscanbemanipulatedasanindependentvariable(like
reinforcement,SDs,schedules,etc.)
MOsinrelationtolanguageacquisitionandacademics(e.g.,math)
MOsinrelationtosocialbehavior(e.g.,peerinteraction)
MOsinrelationtoproblembehaviors(e.g.,aggression)
MOsinrelationtolearningbarriers(e.g.,scrollinginmanding)
MOsinrelationtogroupskills(e.g.,aversiveeventsevokeescape)
MOsinrelationtoselfhelpskills(e.g.,cleanhands)
MOsinrelationtononverbalskills(e.g.,finemotor)

Application2:MOsasthePrimary
AntecedentsforManding

Allmandsarecontrolledbymotivatingoperations(MOs)
TheremustbeanMOatstrengthtoconductmandtraining
MOsvaryinstrengthacrosstime,andtheeffectsmaybetemporary
MOsmustbeeithercapturedorcreatedtoconductmandtraining
MOsmayhaveaninstantorgradualonsetoroffset
Instructorsmustbeabletoreduceexistingnegativebehavior
controlledbyMOs
Instructorsmustbeabletoidentifythepresenceandstrengthof
MOs,andcapitalizeuponthemforteachingopportunities
Instructorsmustknowhowtobringverbalbehaviorunderthe
controlofMOs

Application3:DemandcanWeakena
MotivatingOperation(MO)

Thereisadirectrelationbetweenthevalue(MO)ofareinforcerand
howmuchwork(responseeffort)isrequiredtoobtainthat
reinforcement(e.g.,Alling&Poling,1994)
ToomuchofaworkdemandcanreducethestrengthofanMO
AniPadmaybereinforcingifitisnoncontingent,butlesssoifwork
isrequired
Dontbedependentonrfmt.surveysandpreferenceassessments
Sitting,attending,andrespondingtotaskdemandscanbequiteahigh
responserequirementforsomechildren(video:Julian)

Application3:DemandcanWeakena
MotivatingOperation(MO)

Thereisadirectrelationbetweenthevalue(MO)ofareinforcerand
howmuchwork(responseeffort)isrequiredtoobtainthat
reinforcement(e.g.,Alling&Poling,1994)
ToomuchofaworkdemandcanreducethestrengthofanMO
AniPadmaybereinforcingifitisnoncontingent,butlesssoifworkis
required
Dontbedependentonrfmt.surveysandpreferenceassessments
Sitting,attending,andrespondingtotaskdemandscanbequiteahigh
responserequirementforsomechildren(video:Julian)
StaffmustanticipateandaccountforMOvaluechanges
Manyinterventionstrategiesareavailable,forexample:

identifytheconditionsunderwhichachangeisobserved
startwithalowresponserequirementandhighMOvalue
graduallyincreasetheresponserequirement

Application4:AversiveMOs
asAntecedents
Learnedaversivemotivatorsareubiquitousineverydaybehavior
Weallencounterbad/undesirablethingsandeventswedontwant
Aversivestimuliincreasethevalueoftheirterminationandevoke
behaviorsthatterminatethestimulithroughnegativereinforcement
Michaeltermstheseconditionedmotivatingoperationsreflexive
(CMOR)
CMOR

Demand

Increasedvalue
oftermination

Studentwants
togetaway

Evokesescape
avoidancebehavior

Tantrum,push
materialstofloor

Removeaversive
negativerfmt.

Taskdelayed
orremoved
negativerfmt.

Application4:AversiveMOs
asAntecedents

Adults,tasks,settings,demand,toneofvoice,bodymovements,
contexts,materials,problems,etc.canfunctionasaversiveMOs
PossibleCEORpresenceinDTT
Teachingchildrenhowtohandleorremoveaversivesappropriately
Donotletthenegativebehaviordelayorremovetheaversive
stimulus
Doacurriculumanalysis,mitigatetheaversive,decreasetheresponse
effort
IncreasethereinforcementforrespondingwhenaversiveMOis
present
Donotofferreinforcersfollowingnegativebehaviors(remember
whatyoureworkingfor)

Application4:AversiveMOsas
Antecedents

Application5:MOscanCompete
WithEachOther,andBlockor
DistortStimulusControl

OneMOcanbemorepowerfulthananotherMO(e.g.,astim.toyvs.
socialapproval)
MOsaresometimessopowerfultheyoverpowerSDs(blocking)(e.g.,
iPad,string,Hedoesnotlistentome)
MOscandistortSDs(e.g.,lying,exaggeration)(BrianWilliams)
BeawareofastudentsstrongMOsandpossibleeffectsonhim
Beawarethattabletopteachingmaynotadequatelyreflectan
environmentwheretherearecompetingMOs
SystematicallyrequireSDrespondingwhenthecompetingEOis
present(maybeeasiesttostartwitharelativelyweakEO)
BeawarethatNETmayinadvertentlycatertopowerfulMOs
ControlMOs,dontletthemcontrolyou

Application6:UsingMOstohelpEstablish
OtherSkills(Multiplecontrol)

WeoftenlearnnewskillsbecauseofsomeMOtodoso(e.g.,new
Legoset,newgame,navigationsystem)
IncorporatingMOsalongwithSDsandreinforcementcanenhance
skillacquisition(e.g.,Carroll&Hesse,1987)
Learningtotactthingsastudentisinterestedin
Learningintraverbalsaboutfavoritetopics
Readingandwritingaboutfavoritetopics
MOscanhelpestablishnonverbalskillsaswell(e.g.,fineandgross
motorskills,groomingskills)

Application7:BreakingFreefromMO
ControlbyUsingGeneralized
ConditionedReinforcement

MOcontrolcangettobetoostrong(e.g.,iPad,dinosaurs,OCD)
generalizedreinforcementdestroysthepossibilityofcontrolvia
specificdeprivations.(Skinner,1957,p.212)
weweakentherelationtoanyspecificdeprivationoraversive
stimulationandsetupauniquerelationtoadiscriminativestimulus.
Wedothisbyreinforcingtheresponseasconsistentlyaspossiblein
thepresenceofonestimuluswithmanydifferentreinforcersorwitha
generalizedreinforcer.Theresultingcontrolisthroughthestimulus.
(Skinner,1957,p.84)
Movingamandtoatactorintraverbalthroughgeneralized
reinforcement
Also,usepictures,satiation,andcompetingMOs,lowdemand

Application8:Developingor
RepairingSocialSkills

WeakEOsforsocialinteractionareaproblemformanywithautism
(e.g.,maynotattendtopeersortheirinterests)
Negativebehaviorsmayoccurasbarriers(e.g.,excessivemanding,
irrelevantIVs,verbalperseveration,weaklistenerrepertoires)
There are many complicated behavioral repertoires that fall under the
rubric of social behavior
CreateMOsforverbalbehaviorwithpeers(e.g.,mandingtopeers)
CreateMOsfornonverbalbehaviorwithpeers(e.g.,games,activities)
IdentifyandamelioriateproblematicCEORs(e.g.,avoidingpeers)

Application9:DevelopingorRepairing
SelfhelpSkills

Distinctionbetweenstructuralandfunctionalselfhelpskills
Whydoyoubrushyourteeth,shower,orcarefullyselectclothing?
TheMOsthatcontrolyourbehaviorsmayhavelittleeffecton
teenagerswithautism
MOsrelatedtoavoidingthesocialpunishmentofhavingbodyodoror
badbreath
MOsrelatedtopositivesocialreinforcementforastylishlook
CreatingMOsandassuringthattargetbehaviorsareunderMOcontrol
ratherthansolelyunderthecontrolofS Ds
Setupaplaydate,meeting,event,contest,game,etc.
EstablishandlinkMOstoaselfchecklist
UseMOstoidentifypotentialvocationaldirections
UseMOstoteachcommunitylivingskills

Application10:AskingQuestions
MandsforInformation

Askingaquestionisusuallyamand,thusthesourceofcontrolmust
beanMO
TheMOforinformation(verbalornonverbal)mustbetheprimary
sourceofcontrol(MOaskAOdontask)
Theconsequencemustbetheinformation,notedibles,tokens,etc.
Questionsarenotdevelopmentallyappropriateuntilapproximatelya
twoyearlinguisticlevel
MustcreateorcaptureanEO(e.g.,missingtoy)
Useprompts(e.g.,echoic,textual),fadeprompts(e.g.,WheresElmo)
Reinforcementforaskingquestionsmustbetheinformationthat
correspondswiththeEO(locationofthetoy)

Conclusions

Motivationisanextremelyimportantaspectofhumanbehavior
Behavioranalysishasapowerfulformulationofmotivationthat
hasnotbeendevelopedmuchinABA
Thereisatremendousneedforempiricalresearchonthe
applicationoftheMOtoworkwithchildrenwithautism
Theapplicationstothetreatmentofchildrenwithautismare
abundant,butitisuptoustodevelopthem

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