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Solids
POINT DEFECTS
Point defects are localized disruptions in otherwise
perfect atomic or ionic arrangements in a crystal
structure
These imperfections may be introduced by movement
of the atoms or ions when they gain energy by heating,
during processing of the material, or by the intentional
or unintentional introduction of impurities.
VACANCIES
2.
INTERSTITIAL ATOM
3.
4.
5.
FRENKEL DEFECT
6.
SCHOTTKY DEFECT
VACANCIES
A vacancy is produced when an atom or an ion is missing from its
normal site in the crystal structure
EXAMPLE 1:
The Effect of Temperature on Vacancy Concentrations
Calculate the concentration of vacancies in copper at room
temperature (25C). What temperature will be needed to heat treat
copper such that the concentration of vacancies produced will be
1000 times more than the equilibrium concentration of vacancies at
room temperature? Assume that 20,000 cal are required to produce
a mole of vacancies in copper. The lattice parameter of FCC copper
is 0.36151 nm
EXAMPLE 2
Vacancy Concentrations in Iron
Calculate the theoretical density of iron, and then determine the
number of vacancies needed for a BCC iron crystal to have a
density of 7.874 g cm3. The lattice parameter of iron is 2.866 *10-8
cm. Atomic Weight of Iron is 55.847g/mol
INTERSTITIAL DEFECT
An interstitial defect is formed when an extra atom or
ion is inserted into the crystal structure at a normally
unoccupied position
EXAMPLE 3
Sites for Carbon in Iron
In FCC iron, carbon atoms are located at octahedral sites, which
occur at the center of each edge of the unit cell at sites such as (0,
0, 1 2) and at the center of the unit cell (1 2, 1 2, 1 2). In BCC iron,
carbon atoms enter tetrahedral sites, such as (0, 1 2, 1 4). The
lattice parameter is 0.3571 nm for FCC iron and 0.2866 nm for BCC
iron. Assume that carbon atoms have a radius of 0.071 nm. (a)
Would we expect a greater distortion of the crystal by an interstitial
carbon atom in FCC or BCC iron? (b) What would be the atomic
percentage of carbon in each type of iron if all the interstitial sites
were filled?
SUBSTITUTIONAL DEFECT
A substitutional defectis introduced when one atom or
ion is replaced by a different type of atom or ion. The
substitutional atoms or ions occupy the normal lattice
site. Substitutional atoms or ions may either be larger
than the normal atoms or ions in the crystal structure, in
which case the surrounding interatomic spacings are
reduced, or smaller causing the surrounding atoms to
have larger interatomic spacings.
DISLOCATION
Dislocations are line imperfections in an otherwise perfect crystal.
They typically are introduced into a crystal during solidification of
the material or when the material is deformed permanently.
3 types:
1.
2.
3.
SCREW DISLOCATION
A 1D line defect in which a path spirals around a dislocation line
penetrating through otherwise individual parallel planes
EDGE DISLOCATION
---- A 1D line defect that is the edge of an extra half plane of atoms
within a crystal system
MIXED DISLOCATION
----- have both edge and screw components, with a transition region
between them. The Burgers vector, however, remains the same for
all portions of the mixed dislocation.
BURGERS VECTOR
---- The displacement vector that closes the loop when traversing
an equal number of lattice steps around the defect
---- denoted by b
----- it is parallel in the line of dislocation in screw dislocation and is
perpendicular in the line of dislocation in edge dislocation
Example:
Calculate the length of burger vector in copper (FCC crystal
structure)
SURFACE DEFECTS
Surface defects are the boundaries, or planes, that separate a
material into regions. For example, each region may have the same
crystal structure but different orientations
1.
Material/External Surface
2.
Grain Boundaries
3.
Twin Boundaries
4.
Stacking fault
MATERIAL/EXTERNAL SURFACE
One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along
which the crystal structure terminates. Surface atoms are not
bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors, and are
therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior
positions. The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied
give rise to a surface energy, expressed in units of energy per unit
area (J/m2 or erg/cm2).To reduce this energy, materials tend to
minimize, if at all possible, the total surface area. For example,
liquids assume a shape having a minimum areathe droplets
become spherical. Of course, this is not possible with solids, which
are mechanically rigid.
GRAIN BOUNDARIES
A grain boundary, the surface that separates the individual grains,
is a narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly spaced. That is
to say, the atoms are so close together at some locations in the
grain boundary that they cause a region of compression, and in
other areas they are so far apart that they cause a region of tension
A grain is a portion of the material within which the arrangement of
the atoms is nearly identical; however, the orientation of the atom
arrangement, or crystal structure, is different for each adjoining
grain
where y ---- is the yield strength (the level of stress necessary to cause
a certain amount of permanent deformation),
d ------ is the average diameter of the grains, and
0 and K ------are constants for the metal
Example:
The yield strength of mild steel with an average grain size of 0.05
mm is 20,000 psi. The yield stress of the same steel with a grain
size of 0.007 mm is 40,000 psi. What will be the average grain size
of the same steel with a yield stress of 30,000 psi? Assume the HallPetch equation is valid and that changes in the observed yield
stress are due to changes in grain size.
One manner by which grain size is specified is the ASTM grain size
number (ASTM is the American Society for Testing and Materials).
The number of grains per square inch is determined from a
photograph of the metal taken at a magnification of 100. The ASTM
grain size number n is calculated as
Example:
Computations of ASTM Grain Size Number and Number of Grains Per
Unit Area
(a)
(b)
For this same specimen, how many grains per square inch will
there be at a magnification of 85x?
(a)
(b)
example
Suppose we count 16 grains per square inch in a photomicrograph
taken at a magnification of 250x. What is the ASTM grain size
number?
Twin Boundaries
A twin boundary is a plane across which there is a special mirror
image misorientation of the crystal structure