Definition and terminology

A flare-up or exacerbation is an acute or sub-acute worsening

of symptoms and lung function compared with the patients usual
status
Terminology
Flare-up is the preferred term for discussion with patients
Exacerbation is a difficult term for patients
Attack has highly variable meanings for patients and clinicians
Episode does not convey clinical urgency
Consider management of worsening asthma as a continuum
Self-management with a written asthma action plan
Management in primary care
Management in the emergency department and hospital
Follow-up after any exacerbation

Identify patients at risk of asthma-related death

Patients at increased risk of asthma-related death should be
identified
Any history of near-fatal asthma requiring intubation and
ventilation
Hospitalization or emergency care for asthma in last 12 months
Not currently using ICS, or poor adherence with ICS
Currently using or recently stopped using OCS
(indicating the severity of recent events)
Over-use of SABAs, especially if more than 1 canister/month
Lack of a written asthma action plan
History of psychiatric disease or psychosocial problems
Confirmed food allergy in a patient with asthma
Flag these patients for more frequent review

Written asthma action plans

All patients should have a written asthma action plan
The aim is to show the patient how to recognize and respond to
worsening asthma
It should be individualized for the patients medications, level of
asthma control and health literacy
Based on symptoms and/or PEF (children: only symptoms)
The action plan should include:
The patients usual asthma medications
When/how to increase reliever and controller or start OCS
How to access medical care if symptoms fail to respond
Why?
When combined with self-monitoring and regular medical review,
action plans are highly effective in reducing asthma mortality and
morbidity

Written asthma action

plans
Effective asthma self-management education requires:
Self-monitoring of symptoms and/or lung function

If PEF or FEV1
<60% best, or not
improving after
48 hours

Written asthma action plan

Regular medical review

Continue reliever

EARLY OR MILD

All patients

Continue controller

Increase reliever

Add prednisolone
4050 mg/day

Early increase in
controller as below

Contact doctor

Review response

LATE OR SEVERE

Written asthma action plans medication options

Increase inhaled reliever
Increase frequency as needed
Adding spacer for pMDI may be helpful
Early and rapid increase in inhaled controller
Up to maximum ICS of 2000mcg BDP/day or equivalent
Options depend on usual controller medication and type of
LABA
See GINA 2015 report Box 4-2 for details
Add oral corticosteroids if needed
Adults: prednisolone 1mg/kg/day up to 50mg, usually 5-7 days
Children: 1-2mg/kg/day up to 40mg, usually 3-5 days
Morning dosing preferred to reduce side-effects
Tapering not needed if taken for less than 2 weeks

Rationale for change in recommendation about controller

therapy in asthma action plans

For the last 10 years, most guidelines recommended treating

worsening asthma with SABA alone until OCS were needed, but ...
Most exacerbations are characterised by increased inflammation
Most evidence for self-management involved doubling ICS dose
Outcomes were consistently better if the action plan prescribed both increased
ICS, and OCS
Generalisability of placebo-controlled RCTs of doubling ICS
Participants were required to be highly adherent
Study inhalers were not started, on average, until symptoms and airflow
limitation had been worsening for 4-5 days.
Severe exacerbations are reduced by short-term treatment with
Quadrupled dose of ICS
Quadrupled dose of budesonide/formoterol
Early small increase in ICS/formoterol (maintenance & reliever regimen)
Adherence by community patients is poor
Patients commonly take only 25-35% of prescribed controller dose
Patients often delay seeking care for fear of being given OCS

Managing exacerbations in primary care

PRIMARY CARE

Patient presents with acute or sub-acute asthma exacerbation

Is it asthma?

ASSESS the PATIENT

Risk factors for asthma-related death?

Severity of exacerbation?

MILD or MODERATE

SEVERE

Talks in phrases, prefers

sitting to lying, not agitated
Respiratory rate increased
Accessory muscles not used
Pulse rate 100120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) 9095%
PEF >50% predicted or best

Talks in words, sits hunched

forwards, agitated
Respiratory rate >30/min
Accessory muscles in use
Pulse rate >120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) <90%
PEF 50% predicted or best

LIFE-THREATENING
Drowsy, confused
or silent chest

URGENT

START TREATMENT
SABA410 puffs by pMDI + spacer,
repeat every 20 minutes for 1 hour
Prednisolone:adults 1 mg/kg, max.
50 mg, children 12 mg/kg, max. 40 mg

WORSENING

TRANSFER TO ACUTE
CARE FACILITY
While waiting: give inhaled
SABA and ipratropium bromide,
O2, systemic corticosteroid

Controlled oxygen(if available): target

saturation 9395% (children: 94-98%)

CONTINUE TREATMENT with SABA as needed

ASSESS RESPONSE AT 1 HOUR (or earlier)

WORSENING

IMPROVING

ASSESS FOR DISCHARGE

ARRANGE at DISCHARGE

Symptoms improved, not needing SABA

Reliever:continue as needed

PEF improving, and >60-80% of personal

best or predicted

Controller:start, or step up. Check inhaler

technique, adherence

Oxygen saturation >94% room air

Prednisolone:continue, usually for 57 days

(3-5 days for children)

Resources at homeadequate

Follow up: within 27 days

FOLLOW UP
Reliever: reduce to as-needed
Controller:continue higher dose for short term (12 weeks) or long term (3 months), depending
on background to exacerbation
Risk factors: check and correct modifiable risk factors that may have contributed to exacerbation,
including inhaler technique and adherence
Action plan:Is it understood? Was it used appropriately? Does it need modification?

GINA 2015, Box 4-3 (1/7)

START TREATMENT
TRANSFER TO ACUTE
CARE FACILITY

SABA 410 puffs by pMDI + spacer,

repeat every 20 minutes for 1 hour
Prednisolone:adults 1 mg/kg, max.
50 mg, children 12 mg/kg, max. 40 mg

WORSENING

Controlled oxygen(if available): target

saturation 9395% (children: 94-98%)

While waiting: give inhaled SABA

and ipratropium bromide, O2,
systemic corticosteroid

CONTINUE TREATMENTwith SABA as needed

ASSESS RESPONSE AT 1 HOUR (or earlier)

WORSENING

IMPROVING

ASSESS FOR DISCHARGE

ARRANGE at DISCHARGE

Symptoms improved, not needing SABA

Reliever:continue as needed

PEF improving, and >60-80% of personal

best or predicted

Controller:start, or step up. Check inhaler technique,

adherence

Oxygen saturation >94% room air

Prednisolone:continue, usually for 57 days

(3-5 days for children)

Resources at homeadequate

Follow up: within 27 days

FOLLOW UP
Reliever: reduce to as-needed
Controller:continue higher dose for short term (12 weeks) or long term (3 months), depending
on background to exacerbation
Risk factors: check and correct modifiable risk factors that may have contributed to exacerbation,
including inhaler technique and adherence
Action plan:Is it understood? Was it used appropriately? Does it need modification?

GINA 2015, Box 4-3 (7/7)

Global Initiative for Asthma

Managing exacerbations in acute care

settings
INITIAL ASSESSMENT

Are any of the following present?

A: airway B: breathing C: circulation

Drowsiness, Confusion, Silent chest

NO
YES

Further TRIAGE BY CLINICAL STATUS

according to worst feature

Consult ICU, start SABA and O2,

and prepare patient for intubation

MILD or MODERATE

SEVERE

Talks in phrases
Prefers sitting to lying
Not agitated
Respiratory rate increased
Accessory muscles not used
Pulse rate 100120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) 9095%

Talks in words
Sits hunched forwards
Agitated
Respiratory rate >30/min
Accessory muscles being used
Pulse rate >120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) < 90%

PEF >50% predicted or best

PEF 50% predicted or best

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Consider ipratropium bromide

Controlled O2 to maintain

Ipratropium bromide
Controlled O2 to maintain

saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)

Oral corticosteroids

saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)

Oral or IV corticosteroids
Consider IV magnesium
Consider high dose ICS

If continuing deterioration, treat

as
severe and re-aassess for ICU
ASSESS CLINICAL PROGRESS FREQUENTLY
MEASURE LUNG FUNCTION
in all patients one hour after initial
treatment

FEV1 or PEF 60-80% of predicted or

personal best and symptoms improved
MODERATE
Consider for discharge planning

GINA 2015, Box 4-4 (1/4)

FEV1 or PEF <60% of predicted or

personal best,or lack of clinical response
SEVERE
Continue treatment as above
and reassess frequently

INITIAL ASSESSMENT

Are any of the following present?

A: airway B: breathing C: circulation

Drowsiness, Confusion, Silent chest

NO
YES

Further TRIAGE BY CLINICAL

STATUS
according to worst feature

Consult ICU, start SABA and O2,

and prepare patient for intubation

MILD or MODERATE
Talks in phrases
Prefers sitting to lying
Not agitated
Respiratory rate increased
Accessory muscles not used
Pulse rate 100120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) 9095%

SEVERE
Talks in words
Sits hunched forwards
Agitated
Respiratory rate >30/min
Accessory muscles being used
Pulse rate >120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) < 90%

PEF >50% predicted or best

PEF 50% predicted or best

GINA 2015, Box 4-4 (2/4)

Global Initiative for Asthma

MILD or MODERATE

SEVERE

Talks in phrases
Prefers sitting to lying
Not agitated
Respiratory rate increased
Accessory muscles not used
Pulse rate 100120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) 9095%
PEF >50% predicted or best

Talks in words
Sits hunched forwards
Agitated
Respiratory rate >30/min
Accessory muscles being used
Pulse rate >120 bpm
O2 saturation (on air) < 90%
PEF 50% predicted or best

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Consider ipratropium bromide

Controlled O2 to maintain
saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)
Oral corticosteroids

Ipratropium bromide
Controlled O2 to maintain
saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)
Oral or IV corticosteroids
Consider IV magnesium
Consider high dose ICS

GINA 2015, Box 4-4 (3/4)

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Short-acting beta2-agonists

Consider ipratropium bromide

Ipratropium bromide

Controlled O2 to maintain
saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)

Controlled O2 to maintain
saturation 9395% (children 94-98%)

Oral corticosteroids

Oral or IV corticosteroids
Consider IV magnesium
Consider high dose ICS
If continuing deterioration, treat
as
severe and re-assess for ICU

ASSESS CLINICAL PROGRESS FREQUENTLY

MEASURE LUNG FUNCTION
in all patients one hour after initial treatment

FEV1 or PEF 60-80% of predicted or

personal best and symptoms improved
MODERATE
Consider for discharge planning

GINA 2015, Box -4 (4/4)

FEV1 or PEF <60% of predicted or

personal best,or lack of clinical response
SEVERE
Continue treatment as above
and reassess frequently

Global Initiative for Asthma

Follow-up after an exacerbation

Follow up all patients regularly after an exacerbation, until

symptoms and lung function return to normal
Patients are at increased risk during recovery from an exacerbation

The opportunity
Exacerbations often represent failures in chronic asthma care,
and they provide opportunities to review the patients asthma
management

At follow-up visit(s), check:

The patients understanding of the cause of the flare-up
Modifiable risk factors, e.g. smoking
Adherence with medications, and understanding of their purpose
Inhaler technique skills
Written asthma action plan

Background
For patients with respiratory symptoms, infectious diseases and nonpulmonary conditions need to be distinguished from chronic airways
disease
In patients with chronic airways disease, the differential diagnosis
differs by age
Children and young adults: most likely to be asthma
Adults >40 years: COPD becomes more common, and distinguishing asthma
from COPD becomes more difficult

Many patients with symptoms of chronic airways disease have

features of both asthma and COPD
This has been called the Asthma-COPD Overlap Syndrome (ACOS)

ACOS is not a single disease

It is likely that a range of different underlying mechanisms and origins will be
identified

Background
Patients with features of both asthma and COPD have worse
outcomes than those with asthma or COPD alone
Frequent exacerbations
Poor quality of life
More rapid decline in lung function
Higher mortality
Greater health care utilization
Reported prevalence of ACOS varies by definitions used
Concurrent doctor-diagnosed asthma and COPD are found in
1520% of patients with chronic airways disease
Reported rates of ACOS are between1555% of patients with
chronic airways disease, depending on the definitions used for
asthma and COPD, and the population studied
Prevalence varies by age and gender

Objectives of the ACOS chapter

To assist clinicians (especially in primary care and nonpulmonary specialties):
To identify patients with a disease of chronic airflow
limitation
To distinguish asthma from COPD and the asthma-COPD
overlap syndrome (ACOS)
To decide on initial treatment and/or need for referral
To stimulate research into ACOS, by promoting:
Study of characteristics and outcomes in broad
populations of patients with chronic airflow limitation
Research into underlying mechanisms that might allow
development of specific interventions for prevention and
management of ACOS

Definitions
Asthma
Asthma is a heterogeneous disease, usually characterized by chronic airway
inflammation. It is defined by the history of respiratory symptoms such as wheeze,
shortness of breath, chest tightness and cough that vary over time and in intensity,
together with variable expiratory airflow limitation. [GINA 2015]

COPD
COPD is a common preventable and treatable disease, characterized by persistent
airflow limitation that is usually progressive and associated with enhanced chronic
inflammatory responses in the airways and the lungs to noxious particles or gases.
Exacerbations and comorbidities contribute to the overall severity in individual patients.
[GOLD 2015]

Asthma-COPD overlap syndrome (ACOS) [a description]

Asthma-COPD overlap syndrome (ACOS) is characterized by persistent airflow
limitation with several features usually associated with asthma and several features
usually associated with COPD. ACOS is therefore identified by the features that it
shares with both asthma and COPD.
A specific definition for ACOS cannot be developed until more evidence is available
about its clinical phenotypes and underlying mechanisms.
GINA 2015, Box 5-1

Global Initiative for Asthma

Stepwise approach to diagnosis and

initial treatment
DIAGNOSE CHRONIC AIRWAYS DISEASE
Do symptoms suggest chronic airways disease?

STEP 1
Yes

STEP 2

No

Consider other diseases first

SYNDROMIC DIAGNOSIS IN ADULTS

(i) Assemble the features for asthma and for COPD that best describe the patient.
(ii) Compare number of features in favour of each diagnosis and select a diagnosis

Features: if present suggest ASTHMA

Before age 20 years
Age of onset
Pattern of symptoms

Lung function
Lung function between
symptoms
Past history or family
history

Time course

Chest X-ray

COPD
After age 40 years

Variation over minutes, hours or days

Worse during the night or early
morning. Triggered by exercise,
emotions including laughter, dust or
exposure to allergens
Record of variable airflow limitation
(spirometry or peak flow)

Persistent despite treatment

Good and bad days but always daily
symptoms and exertional dyspnea
Chronic cough & sputum preceded
onset of dyspnea, unrelated to
triggers
Record of persistent airflow limitation
(FEV1/FVC < 0.7 post-BD)

Normal

Abnormal

Previous doctor diagnosis of

asthma
Family history of asthma, and other
allergic conditions (allergic rhinitis
or eczema)
No worsening of symptoms over
time. Variation in symptoms either
seasonally, or from year to year
May improve spontaneously or have
an immediate response to
bronchodilators or to ICS over
weeks
Normal

Previous doctor diagnosis of COPD,

chronic bronchitis or emphysema
Heavy exposure to risk factor: tobacco
smoke, biomass fuels
Symptoms slowly worsening over
time (progressive course over years)
Rapid-acting bronchodilator
treatment provides only limited relief
Severe hyperinflation

NOTE: These features best distinguish between asthma and COPD. Several positive features (3 or more) for either asthma or
COPD suggest that diagnosis. If there are a similar number for both asthma and COPD, consider diagnosis of ACOS

DIAGNOSIS

Asthma

Some features
of asthma

CONFIDENCE IN
DIAGNOSIS

Asthma

Asthma

STEP 3

Marked
reversible airflow limitation
(pre-post bronchodilator) or other
proof of variable airflow limitation

PERFORM
SPIROMETRY

STEP 4
INITIAL
TREATMENT*

STEP 5
SPECIALISED
INVESTIGATIONS
or REFER IF:

Features of
both
Could be
ACOS

Some features
of COPD
Possibly
COPD

COPD
COPD

FEV1/FVC < 0.7

post-BD

ICS, and
Asthma
Asthma drugs
COPD
COPD
usually
drugs
No LABA
drugs
drugs
LABA
No LABA
monotherapy
monotherapy
+/or LAMA
*Consult GINA and GOLD documents for recommended treatments.

For an adult who presents

with respiratory symptoms:
1. Does the patient have
chronic airways disease?
2. Syndromic diagnosis of
asthma, COPD and ACOS
3. Spirometry
4. Commence initial therapy
5. Referral for specialized
investigations (if
necessary)

Persistent symptoms and/or exacerbations despite treatment.

Diagnostic uncertainty (e.g. suspected pulmonary hypertension, cardiovascular diseases
and other causes of respiratory symptoms).
Suspected asthma or COPD with atypical or additional symptoms or signs (e.g.
haemoptysis, weight loss, night sweats, fever, signs of bronchiectasis or other structural
lung disease).
Few features of either asthma or COPD.
Comorbidities present.
Reasons for referral for either diagnosis as outlined in the GINA and GOLD strategy
reports.

GINA 2015, Box 5-4

Global Initiative for Asthma

Step 1 Does the patient have chronic

airways disease?

STEP 1

Yes

GINA 2015

DIAGNOSE CHRONIC AIRWAYS DISEASE

Do symptoms suggest chronic airways disease?
No

Consider other diseases first

Global Initiative for Asthma

Step 1 Does the patient have chronic airways disease?

Clinical history: consider chronic airways disease if
Chronic or recurrent cough, sputum, dyspnea or wheezing,
or repeated acute lower respiratory tract infections
Previous doctor diagnosis of asthma and/or COPD
Previous treatment with inhaled medications
History of smoking tobacco and/or other substances
Exposure to environmental hazards, e.g. airborne pollutants
Physical examination
May be normal
Evidence of hyperinflation or respiratory insufficiency
Wheeze and/or crackles

Step 1 Does the patient have chronic airways disease?

Radiology (CXR or CT scan performed for other reasons)
May be normal, especially in early stages
Hyperinflation, airway wall thickening, hyperlucency, bullae
May identify or suggest an alternative or additional diagnosis,
e.g. bronchiectasis, tuberculosis, interstitial lung disease,
cardiac failure
Screening questionnaires
Designed to assist in identification of patients at risk of
chronic airways disease
May not be generalizable to all countries, practice settings or
patients
See GINA and GOLD reports for examples

Step 2 Syndromic diagnosis of asthma, COPD and ACOS

Assemble the features that, when present, most favor a
diagnosis of typical asthma or typical COPD
Compare the number of features on each side
If the patient has 3 features of either asthma or COPD,
there is a strong likelihood that this is the correct
diagnosis
Consider the level of certainty around the diagnosis
Diagnoses are made on the weight of evidence
The absence of any of these features does not rule out
either diagnosis, e.g. absence of atopy does not rule out
asthma
When a patient has a similar number of features of both
asthma and COPD, consider the diagnosis of ACOS

STEP 2

SYNDROMIC DIAGNOSIS IN ADULTS

(i) Assemble the features for asthma and for COPD that best describe the patient.
(ii) Compare number of features in favour of each diagnosis and select a diagnosis

Features: if present suggest -

ASTHMA

COPD

Age of onset

Before age 20 years

After age 40 years

Pattern of symptoms

Variation over minutes, hours or days

Persistent despite treatment

Worse during the night or early morning Good and bad days but always daily
symptoms and exertional dyspnea
Triggered by exercise, emotions
including laughter, dust or exposure
to allergens

Chronic cough & sputum preceded

onset of dyspnea, unrelated to triggers

Lung function

Record of variable airflow limitation

(spirometry or peak flow)

Record of persistent airflow limitation

(FEV1/FVC < 0.7 post-BD)

Lung function between

symptoms

Normal

Abnormal

Past history or family history

Previous doctor diagnosis of asthma

Previous doctor diagnosis of COPD,

chronic bronchitis or emphysema

Family history of asthma, and other

allergic conditions (allergic rhinitis or
eczema)
Time course

No worsening of symptoms over time.

Variation in symptoms either
seasonally, or from year to year
May improve spontaneously or have
an immediate response to
bronchodilators or to ICS over weeks

Chest X-ray

Normal

Heavy exposure to risk factor: tobacco

smoke, biomass fuels
Symptoms slowly worsening over time
(progressive course over years)
Rapid-acting bronchodilator treatment
provides only limited relief

Severe hyperinflation

NOTE: These features best distinguish between asthma and COPD. Several positive features (3 or more) for either asthma or COPD suggest
that diagnosis. If there are a similar number for both asthma and COPD, consider diagnosis of ACOS

GINA 2014

DIAGNOSIS

Asthma

Some features
of asthma

Features of
both

Some features
of COPD

COPD

CONFIDENCE IN
DIAGNOSIS

Asthma

Asthma

Could be ACOS

Possibly COPD

COPD
Global Initiative for Asthma

STEP 3
PERFORM
SPIROMETRY

Marked
reversible airflow limitation
(pre-post bronchodilator) or other
proof of variable airflow limitation

FEV1/FVC < 0.7

post-BD

Global Initiative for Asthma

Step 3 - Spirometry
Essential if chronic airways disease is suspected
Confirms chronic airflow limitation
More limited value in distinguishing between asthma with
fixed airflow limitation, COPD and ACOS
Measure at the initial visit or subsequent visit
If possible measure before and after a trial of treatment
Medications taken before testing may influence results
Peak expiratory flow (PEF)
Not a substitute for spirometry
Normal PEF does not rule out asthma or COPD
Repeated measurement may confirm excessive variability,
found in asthma or in some patients with ACOS

Step 3 - Spirometry
Spirometric variable
Normal FEV1/FVC
pre- or post-BD

Asthma

COPD

Compatible with asthma Not compatible with

diagnosis (GOLD)

Post-BD
FEV1/FVC <0.7 Indicates airflow
limitation; may improve

Required for diagnosis

by GOLD criteria

ACOS
Not compatible unless
other evidence of chronic
airflow limitation
Usual in ACOS

FEV1 80% predicted

Compatible with asthma Compatible with GOLD Compatible with mild

(good control, or interval category A or B if post- ACOS
between symptoms)
BD FEV1/FVC <0.7

FEV1<80% predicted

Compatible with asthma. Indicates severity of

A risk factor for
airflow limitation and risk
exacerbations
of exacerbations and
mortality

Indicates severity of
airflow limitation and risk
of exacerbations and
mortality

Usual at some time in

Post-BD
increase in
FEV1>12% and 200mL course of asthma; not
from baseline (reversible always present
airflow limitation)

Common in COPD and

more likely when FEV1
is low

Common in ACOS, and

more likely when FEV1 is
low

Post-BD
increase in
FEV1>12% and 400mL
from baseline

Unusual in COPD.
Consider ACOS

Compatible with
diagnosis of ACOS

GINA 2015, Box 5-3

High probability of
asthma

Global Initiative for Asthma

STEP 4
INITIAL
TREATMENT*

Asthma Asthma
drugs
drugs
No LABA No LABA
monother monother
apy
apy

ICS and

consider
LABA
+/or
LAMA

COPD

drugs

COPD
drugs

*Consult GINA and GOLD documents for

recommended treatments.

Global Initiative for Asthma

Step 4 Commence initial therapy

Initial pharmacotherapy choices are based on both efficacy and safety
If syndromic assessment suggests asthma as single diagnosis
Start with low-dose ICS
Add LABA and/or LAMA if needed for poor control despite good
adherence and correct technique
Do not give LABA alone without ICS
If syndromic assessment suggests COPD as single diagnosis
Start with bronchodilators or combination therapy
Do not give ICS alone without LABA and/or LAMA
If differential diagnosis is equally balanced between asthma and COPD, i.e.
ACOS
Start treatment as for asthma, pending further investigations
Start with ICS at low or moderate dose
Usually also add LABA and/or LAMA, or continue if already prescribed

Step 4 Commence initial therapy

For all patients with chronic airflow limitation:
Treat modifiable risk factors including advice about
smoking cessation
Treat comorbidities
Advise about non-pharmacological strategies
including physical activity, and, for COPD or ACOS,
pulmonary rehabilitation and vaccinations
Provide appropriate self-management strategies
Arrange regular follow-up
See GINA and GOLD reports for details

STEP 3
PERFORM
SPIROMETRY

STEP 5
SPECIALISED
INVESTIGATIONS
or REFER IF:

GINA 2015

Persistent symptoms and/or exacerbations

despite treatment.
Diagnostic uncertainty (e.g. suspected
pulmonary hypertension, cardiovascular
diseases and other causes of respiratory
symptoms).
Suspected asthma or COPD with atypical or
additional symptoms or signs (e.g. haemoptysis,
weight loss, night sweats, fever, signs of
bronchiectasis or other structural lung disease).
Few features of either asthma or COPD.
Comorbidities present.
Reasons for referral for either diagnosis as
outlined in the GINA and GOLD strategy
reports.
Global Initiative for Asthma

Step 5 Refer for specialized investigations if needed

Refer for expert advice and extra investigations if patient has:
Persistent symptoms and/or exacerbations despite treatment
Diagnostic uncertainty, especially if alternative diagnosis
(e.g. TB, cardiovascular disease) needs to be excluded
Suspected airways disease with atypical or additional symptoms or
signs (e.g. hemoptysis, weight loss, night sweats, fever, chronic
purulent sputum). Do not wait for a treatment trial before referring
Suspected chronic airways disease but few features of asthma,
COPD or ACOS
Comorbidities that may interfere with their management
Issues arising during on-going management of asthma, COPD or
ACOS

Step 5 Refer for specialized

investigations if needed
Investigation

Asthma

COPD

DLCO

Normal or slightly elevated

Often reduced

Arterial blood gases

Normal between
exacerbations

In severe COPD, may be abnormal

between exacerbations

Airway
hyperresponsiveness

Not useful on its own in distinguishing asthma and COPD.

Higher levels favor asthma

High resolution CT
scan

Usually normal; may show air

trapping and increased airway
wall thickness

Air trapping or emphysema; may

show bronchial wall thickening and
features of pulmonary hypertension

Tests for atopy

(sIgE and/or skin
prick tests)

Not essential for diagnosis;

increases probability of
asthma

Conforms to background
prevalence; does not rule out COPD

FENO

If high (>50ppb) supports

eosinophilic inflammation

Usually normal. Low in current

smokers

Blood eosinophilia

Supports asthma diagnosis

May be found during exacerbations

Sputum inflammatory
cell analysis

Role in differential diagnosis not established in large populations

GINA 2015, Box 5-5

Global Initiative for Asthma