CHARACTERIATION AND

CONTROL MEASURES FOR

EXPANSIVE SOIL

Prof. P.V. SIVAPULLAIAH

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012

SOILS WITH SPECIAL PROPERTIES

1.Expansive Soils - Soils that swell and shrink with change in

moisture content

2. Collapsible Soils - Soils that have

potential to collapse and possess
porous textures with high void ratios
and relatively low densities.

Warped sidewalk due to

collapsing soils near Meeker,
Colorado.
Photo by Jon White

Hydrocompaction or collapsing soil

caused this driveway to drop 8 inches.
Photo by J. White

3.Lateritic Soils - These soils are soft, clay-rich horizons

showing marked iron segregation or mottling and also to gravelly
materials comprised mainly of iron oxide concretions or pisoliths.
Because of the presence of a hardened crust near the surface, the
strength of laterite may decrease with increasing depth. Possesses
a wide range of void ratios and pore sizes.. Many partially
saturated tropical residual soils are collapsible.

4.Dispersive Soils - Dispersive soils contain a higher content of

dissolved sodium (up to 12%) in their pore water than ordinary
soils. Serious piping damage to embankments and failures of
earth dams.

5.Soils of Arid Regions - These are extensive saline flats that

are underlain by sand, silt or clay and often are encrusted with
salt. Groundwater in coastal sabkhas is recharged directly from
the sea, from inland sources or by infiltration of seawater
blown inland by on-shore winds. Minerals that are precipitated
from groundwater in arid problems are increased permeability,
reduced density and settlement.

6.Peat-Soils containing partially decomposed and disintegrated

plant remains preserved under conditions of incomplete aeration
and high water content.
The void ratio of peat ranges between 9, for dense amorphous
granular peat, up to 25, for fibrous types.
It usually tends to decrease with depth within a peat deposit.
The bulk density of peat is both low and variable.
Peats frequently are not saturated and may be buoyant under
water due to the presence of gas.
Except at low water contents with high mineral contents, the
average bulk density of peats is slightly lower than water
The dry density is influenced by the mineral content and higher
values than that quoted can be obtained when peats possess high
mineral residues.

7 Frozen Soil - Found in regions where the winter temperatures

rarely rise above freezing point and the summer temperatures
are only warm enough to cause thawing in the upper meter or
so.
Frozen granular soils exhibit a reasonable high compressive
strength only a few degrees below freezing.
Frozen soil undergoes appreciable deformation under
sustained loading.
As the soil thaws downwards the upper layers become
saturated and, since water cannot drain through the frozen soil
beneath, it may suffer a complete loss of strength. As ice melts,
settlement occurs.. Excess pore pressures develop when the rate
of ice melt is greater than the discharge capacity of the soil.
Shrinkage presents another problem when soil is subjected to
freezing.

Fig. Frozen Soil

COMMON SOIL MINERALS

CLAY MINERALS
The clay minerals and soil organic matter are colloids.
The most important property of colloids is their small size
and large surface area. The total colloidal area of soil colloids
may range from 10 m2/g to more than 800 m2/g depending the
external and internal surfaces of the colloid.
Soil colloids also carry negative or positive charges on their
external and internal surfaces.
Soils colloids play a very important role in the chemical
reaction which take play in soil

TYPE OF CLAY MINERALS

There are four major types of clay minerals . - layer silicates,
the metal oxides and hydroxides and oxy-oxides, amorphous
and allophanes, and crystalline chain silicates
SILICATE CLAYS
The silicate clays are layers of tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets.
The basic building blocks of tetetrahedral and octahedral
sheets are the silica tetrahedron and the aluminum octahedra.
The Si4+ cation occurs in fourfold and tetrahedral
coordination with oxygen whilst the al3+ is generally found in
six fold or octahedral coordination

 Layer silicate minerals are sometimes defined on the basis of

the number of certain positions occupied by cations. When
two-thirds of the octahedral positions are occupied , the
mineral is called dioctahedral (gibbsite or yellow sheet); When
all 3 positions are occupied it is called trioctahedral (brucite or
blue sheet).
When one octahedral sheet is bonded to one tetrahedral sheet
a 1:1 clay mineral results. Presence of surface and broken edge oh groups gives the kaolinite clay particles their electronegativity and their capacity to absorb cations.
In 2:1 clay mineral an octahedral sheet is bonded to two
tetrahedral sheets. The octahedral sheet is generally
sandwiched between the two tetrahedral sheets.

 The 2:1 clays can be classified into expanding (smectites)

and non-expanding clays (illite and micas) on the basis of the
sheet where isomorphous susbstitution is taking
predominantly taking place.
In the 2:1:1 lattice clays, a positively charge brucite sheet
sandwiched between layers restricts swelling, decreases
effective surface area, and decreases the effective cec of
mineral.

CHARGE DEVELOPMENT ON CLAYS

Two main sources of charge in clay minerals are
isomorphous substitution and ph-dependent charges.
Charge development of on silicate clays is mainly due to
isomorphous substitution. This is the substitution of one
element for another in ionic crystals with out change of the
structure. It takes place during crystallization and is not subject
to change afterwards.
It takes places only between ions differing by less than about
10% to 15% in crystal radii.. In tetrahedral coordination, Al 3+
for Si4+ and in octahedral coordination Mg2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ for Al3+.
Charges developed as a result of isomorphous substitution are
permanent and not ph-dependent.

 In allophanes, some silicate clays e.G. Kaolinite, and the

metal oxides the charges are termed ph -dependent charges
as they vary with the ph of the soil.
pH depend charges may either be positive or negative
depending on the ph of the soil.
Acid soils tend to develop positive charges because of the
protonation of the oh group on the oxide surfaces.

SWELLING - INCREASE IN VOLUME

Due to Reduction in Normal Stress
When a soil is subject to a reduction in total normal stress the
scope for volume increase is limited because particle
rearrangement due to a total stress increase is largely
irreversible.
Due to Water Content Increase
Volume increase due to swelling does not always accompany
water content increase on rewetting of a soil. A dry soil can
take up water, with air in the voids being replaced by water,
without a consequent increase in volume. This occurs
typically for sandy and silty soils.

 Swelling of clay soils is usually an effect associated with

particle hydration.
The adsorbed water surrounding clay mineral particles will
experience recoverable compression due to increase in
interparticle forces, especially if there is face-to-face
orientation of the particles.
When a decrease in total normal stress takes place in a soil
there will thus be a tendency for the soil skeleton to expand
to a limited extent, especially in soils containing an
appreciable proportion of clay mineral particles.

The hydration of particles is mainly due to :

Charge on clay particle surface, which is
responsible for interaction with water and
development of electrical double layer .

SWELLING SOILS
Montmorillonite
Vermiculite and
Some mixed layer minerals like montmorillonite or
beidellite, interlayered with chlorite or with a mica

MINEROLOGY OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Exposed oxygen
Isomorphous substitution
Large negative charges
Repulsion

Structure of montmorillonite

PHASES OF SWELLING
Part of the sorbed water fills the pores and part is
oriented on the surface of the particles to produce the
swelling.
Thus swelling occurs in two phases.
First the relatively faster swelling due to flow of water due
to release of water stresses in the partially saturated
voids of the soil.
Then the secondary slow swelling due to progressive
hydration of active clay mineral within the soil.
Volume increase due to swelling does not always
accompany water content increase.

STAGES OF SWELLING
First stage is when the initial distance between the particles
is less than 2nm. During this stage, the swelling is opposed by
the electrostatic attraction between cations and negatively
charged layers.
Second stage is swelling beyond 2nm and is possible
provided the hydration energy of cation is more than the
energy of attraction.
Swelling continues to the second stage if only monovalent
cations are present. The distance between the neighbouring
sheets rises smoothly up to tens of nm.
In third stage, the sheets are totally separated and form an
arrangement caused by edge to face and edge to edge forces.

Stages of swelling

Swell potential is
Defined as percentage of swell under a 1-psi surcharge of
laterally confined specimen compacted at OMC to MDD
Correlated with activity of clay content, PI, SI etc. (Seed et
al., Ranganatham and Satyanarayana)
Swelling and shrinkage are related.

SWELL POTENTIAL OF CLAYS DEPENDS ON

Amount and type of clay minerals present,
Type of exchangeable ions,
Electrolyte content of the aqueous solution,
Particle-size distribution,
Void size and distribution,
Water content,
Superimposed load.

PREDICTION OF AMOUNT OF SWELLING

Time versus percent swelling is similar to that of a
rectangular hyperbola.
t/s = c + m*t.

STABILIZATION
The alteration of properties of the existing soil
so as to create a new site material capable of
meeting the specific engineering requirement is
called soil stabilisation.
The properties of a soil may be altered in many
ways, among which included are chemical,
thermal, mechanical and other means.
Because of the great variability of soils, no one
method is ever successful in more than a
limited number of soils.

STABILIZATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Treatment procedures that are available for
stabilizing expansive soils are:
Chemical additives
Pre-wetting
Soil replacement with compaction control
Surcharge loading
Thermal methods

SELECTION OF METHOD
Geotechnical site investigations and testing
programs Some factors of special interest are:
Potential for volume change
Depth of active zone
Degree of fracturing
Heterogeneity or uniformity of soil on site
Lime reactivity of the soil
Presence of undesirable chemical compounds
Moisture variation within the soil mass
Soil permeability
Strength of the soil needed for the project

STABILIZATION BY CHEMICAL ADDITIVES

Treatment of expansive soils is either to
(a) convert the soil to a rigid granular mass, the
particles of which are sufficiently strongly bound
to resist the internal swelling pressure of the clay
or
(b) retard moisture movement within the soil.
Provided the retardation is sufficient to overcome
normal seasonal changes & it is adequate for
practical purposes.

continued

Impervious membranes are available and useful,

unless they wholly isolate the area to be stabilized
their function will be merely to lengthen the path
and hence time of the moisture movement.
Other than loading to restrict swell, there is no
good alternative to stabilization to overcome the
disruptive effects of moisture changes in an
expansive soil.
Densification is almost always a useful means for
upgrading the mechanical properties of a soil,
whatever additional stabilization systems are
employed.

continued

Chemical
admixture(
eg.
lime)
stabilization has been extensively used in
both shallow and deep stabilization to
improve inherent properties of soil.
An increment in strength a reduction in
compressibility an improvement of the
swelling or squaring characteristics and
increasing durability of the soil are the main
aims of the admixture stabilization.

MECHANISM OF LIME STABILIZATION

The major strength gain of lime treated clay is
mainly derived from these reactions.
Dehydration of soil
Ion exchange and flocculation
Pozzolanic reaction
Carbonation cause minor strength increase
Short time reaction include hydration
flocculation,
Long term reactions are cementation
carbonation.

and
and

Hydration reaction
CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2 + Heat
Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2(OH)(280 calories/gm of CaO)
Ion Exchange reaction
Ca++ + Clay Ca++ Clay + (Na+, K+)
Pozzolanic Reaction
Ca++ + 2 (OH)- + Si O2 CSH
Ca++ + 2 (OH)- + Al2O3 CAH
Carbonation
Ca (OH)2 + CO2

Ca CO3 + H2O

Factors controlling the characteristics of Lime

Treated Clay
Type of Lime
Lime Content Lime Fixation Point optimum lime content
Curing Time - Testing Procedures
Type of Soil Grain Size Distribution, Clay mineral
soil pH
Curing Temperature
Role of other chemicals salts, organic matter

Effect of Delayed Compaction

Time interval between wet mixing and
compaction of a soil-lime mixes generally takes
place due to some unavoidable interruptions in
construction, non - availability of rollers in proper
time and lack of proper supervision.
Delay in compaction reduces the strength.
The delay upto 2/4 hours is not substantial.

Application Methods
Mixed in Place and Recompacted
Drill Hole Lime
Pressure - Injected Lime
These methods discussed are :
Deep mixing methods
Dry Jet mixing methods
Jet Grouting mixing methods
Lime Piles
Lime Columns

Mixed in Place and Recompacted

Mix mechanically with either a disc harrow or a
small ripper. Difficult to mix deeper than 300 mm.

Drill Hole Lime

Introduce quick or hydrated lime in slurry form
into holes.
Holes 150 to 300 mm in dia. are drilled through
the pavement to depths of 750 to 1250 mm.

Pressure-Injected Lime
PIL or LSPI technique was developed to
produce greater lime slurry penetration in the
drill-hole.
Lime slurry is pumped through hollow injection
rods at pressures of about 300mm.
Slurry is injected until either the soil will not take
additional slurry, or until injection begin to
fracture or distort the surface.

Dry jet mixing method

Quicklime is injected into deep ground through
a nozzle pipe with the aid of compresses air
and then the powder is mixed mechanically by
rotary wings.

Wet Jet Grouting mixing methods

Slurry is injected into the clay by a pressure of
20 MPa from a rotating nozzle.
The diameter of improved column trends to vary
with depth according to the vartiations of the
subsoil shear strengths.

LIME PILES
Offers an effective and inexpensive method of
compacting saturated soils.
Large Density difference between oxide (3.3)
and hydroxide (2.2) which gives rise to
expansion on hydration.
Lime piles can be installed in saturated soils by
means of a special tube with a closed tip, holes
being driven to depths of 5 - 8 m and spread at
1.5 - 2.5m centres. Then the tube is withdrawn
from the soil and the hole is filled with lumps of
quicklime. Casing used is removes as the
quicklime is placed. The quicklime is packed by
tamping.

On contact with ground water, the quicklime

gradually slakes which means, that the diameter
of the pile may expand from 30 % to 70% of its
original size.
The large amount of heat released evaporates
pore water in the surrounding to the pile.
Lime penetrates the soil thereby effecting
stabilisation.
Lime piles have been used prior to excavation to
increase the strength of cohesive soils.

Procedure for construction of Lime Piles in slopes

Lime Columns
Lime drains can be installed in-situ by means of
a tool reminiscent of a giant eggbeater. The
mast and the rotary table are usually mounted
on a front wheel- loader. A container is attached
to the loader to store the unslaked lime. It takes
about 10 min to install a drain to a depth of 10m.
The tool is screwed into the soil to the required
depth of the drain. The rotation then is reversed
and unslaked lime is forced into the soil, by
compressed air, through openings placed just
above the blades of the mixing tool

The amount of lime used approximates to 5 8 % of the dry weight of the soil.
When the tool is extracted, the retrieval rate is
about one tenth of the rate at which it is
screwed into the soil, so that the lime can be
thoroughly mixed with the soil.
This is important since the rate of diffusion of
calcium ions in most cohesive soils is low.
These lime columns bring about drainage of
the soil and compare favourably with sand
drains due to their large surface area; they
have a diameter of about 0.5 m.

Lime columns have been used instead of piles as

foundations for light structures.
The bearing capacity of a 0.5m diameter lime
column varies normally between 50 and 500 kN
depending on the soil type and the amount of lime
added.
The columns reduce total and differential
settlements and may be placed in a square
pattern with a concentration beneath the loaded
walls. The load of the structure can be distributed
to the lime columns by way of a thin concrete slab
(e.g. if the number of columns is large the slab
need only be about 80 mm thick).

In the case of light structures the amount of

settlement which occurs usually is a more
significant factor than the shear strength of the
soil.
The final amount of settlement undergone by soil
treated with lime columns generally is calculated
by assuming that the stiffness of the foundation
corresponds to the sum of the stiffness of the lime
columns and of the unstabilized soil between the
columns.
It therefore is further assumed that the
deformation of the lime columns will be the same
as that of the unstabilized soil between the
columns.

The calculation of the time-settlement

relationships is usually based on the
assumption that the lime columns function as
vertical drains in the soil and that drainage
takes place horizontally.
The maximum total settlement of a structure
supported by lime column is taken equal to the
sum of the local settlement of the reinforced
block and the local settlement of the
unstabilised soil below the block.

The ultimate bearing capacity of lime colmn

groups depends on both the shear strength
of the untreated soil between the columns
and on the shear strength of the column
material

Q ult ,group 2C u H B L 6 to9 C u BL

Q ult

b
5.5C av 1 0.2
l

The maximum total settlement of a

structure supported on lime columns is
taken as to the sum of the local settlement
of the reinforced block and the local
settlement of the unstabilised sol below the
block.
The applied is load is relatively low and the
creep of the column will not be exceeded.
In the second case the applied load is
relatively high and the axial load in the
column will correspond to the creep limit

The columns and the untreated soil between the

columns deform as a unit and that the axial
shortening of the columns corresponds to the
settlement of the surrounding soil.
The axial stress in the column is expresses as:
qH
h1
aM col (1 a )M soil
Where q is the average contact pressure, a is
the relative column area, Nacol/ BL is the ratio of
the total area of the columns NAcol, and the
stabilised area BL, Msoil and Mcol are the
compression modului of the surrounding soil and
of the column.

APPLICATIONS
Subgrade and Sub-base Stabilisation
Drying Soil
Stabilising Embankments and Canal Lining
Foundation Improvement

Subgrade and Sub-base Stabilisation

Subgrade stabilisation usually involves
stabilising the soil in place. After the soil has
been brought to grade, the roadway should be
scrarifid to full depth and width and then partly
pulverised.
The lime should be spread evenly using dry or
slurry methods.
Some idea of the amount of lime to be applied
to the soil can be obtained from figure.

Drying Soil
Heavy costs can be incurred when
construction equipment and transport
become bogged down on site due to heavy
rainfall turning clayey ground into mud.
Anhydrous granular quicklime dries soil
more quickly.
Water for slaking comes from the soil during
mixing. Quicklime combines with up to onethird of its weight of water when reacting.

Stabilising Embankments
and Canal Lining
For many kinds of Embankment construction,
such as road and railway, earth dams, and
levees.
In the case of construction of embankment
which carry roads and railways, as well as
slopes, both natural and in cuttings, these are
treated when the shear strength of soil needs
to be enhances.

Retaining Structures lime stabilisation is used to

increase resistance of soil to erosion
Stabilise low low-angled slopes - surface layer of
150 mm is mixed in place with about 2% of lime.
Lime stabilisation is used for the core of an earth
dam to provide security against long term
instability or distress arising from seepage.
Stabilise canal lining. Treated soil is replaced and
compacted in three lifts.

Foundation Improvement
Lime stabilisation of expansive soils is used to
minimise the amount of shrinkage, swelling
and settlement. This reduces the number and
size of cracks developed by buildings founded
on expansive soils.
For light structures, lime stabilisation may be
applied immediately below strip footings.
Treatment is better as a layer beneath a raft to
minimise differential settlements.
LSPI is economical in situ for treating
expansive soils .

CONCLUSION
Many of the important engineering properties of
clay soils are enhanced by the addition of lime.
The properties vary and depend upon the
characteristics of soils, the type and amount of lime
and length of curing.
Design lime contents vary.
More uses with improved methods of application.

Thank you