SCIT 1408 Applied Human Anatomy and Physiology II - Respiratory System Chapter 22 B

Respiratory Volumes
TV tidal vol
Amt air in or out @ rest; 500 ml
IRV Inspiratory
Amt air forcibly inhaled after TV; 2100-3200 ml
reserve volume
ERV Expiratory
reserve volume
RV Residual
volume
Amt air forcibly exhaled after TV; 1000-1200 ml

Amt air still in lungs after forceful expiration;
1200 ml
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Respiratory Capacity
IC
Inspiratory
capacity
FRC
Functional
residual capacity
VC
Vital capacity
Max. amt that can be inspired after TV

expiration; TV + IRV
Amt air remaining in lungs after TV expiration;
RV + ERV
Max amt that can be expired after max.

inspiration; total exchangeable air;
TV+IRV+ERV; 4800 mls in young males
Dead Space
Anatomical dead space volume of air in the

conducting respiratory passages (150 ml)
Alveolar dead space alveoli that cease to act in

gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction
Total dead space sum of alveolar and anatomical

dead spaces; not available for gas exchange
Pulmonary Function Tests
Spirometry evaluates respiratory function; DX between

Obstructive & Restrictive Disease
Obstructive - increased airway resistance;
Example: Chronic bronchitis
> TLC, FRC, RV
Restrictive - reduction in total lung capacity;
Asbestosis, TB
< VC, TLC, FRC, RV
FVC amt air expelled after taking deep breath & forceful
exhalation; reduced FEV in obstructive diseases
Pulmonary Function Tests
Obstructive disease
Increases:
Restrictive disease
Decreases:
TLC
VC
FRC
TLC
RV
FRC
Decreases:
RV
FEV
Alveolar Ventilation
Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) measures the

flow of fresh gases into and out of the alveoli
during a particular time
AVR
(ml/min)
frequency
(breaths/min)
(TV dead space)

(ml/breath)
Slow, deep breathing increases AVR and rapid,

shallow breathing decreases AVR
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
Most result from reflex action
Examples include: coughing, sneezing, crying,

laughing, hiccupping, and yawning
Basic Properties of Gases:

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the
sum of the pressures exerted independently by
each gas in the mixture
The partial pressure of each gas is directly

proportional to its percentage in the mixture
Basic Properties of Gases: Henrys Law
When a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid,

each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to
its partial pressure and its solubility
Carbon dioxide: > soluble
Oxygen: < (1/20th) soluble
Nitrogen is practically insoluble in plasma
Composition of Alveolar Gas
The atmosphere = > oxygen & nitrogen
Alveoli = > carbon dioxide & water vapor
These differences from:
Gas exchanges in the lungs oxygen diffuses from

the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses into the
alveoli
Humidification of air by conducting passages
The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each

breath
External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas

Exchange
Factors influencing the movement of oxygen and

carbon dioxide across the respiratory membrane
1. Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
2. Matching of alveolar ventilation and pulmonary
blood perfusion
3. Structural characteristics of the respiratory
membrane
Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas

Solubilities
The partial pressure oxygen (PO ) of venous blood
2
is 40 mm Hg; the partial pressure in the alveoli is
104 mm Hg
This steep gradient allows oxygen partial pressures

to rapidly reach equilibrium (in 0.25 seconds), and
thus blood can move three times as quickly (0.75
seconds) through the pulmonary capillary and still
be adequately oxygenated
Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas

Solubilities
Although carbon dioxide has a lower partial
pressure gradient:
It is 20 times more soluble in plasma than oxygen
It diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen
External resp:
O2 in/CO2 out
Air: alveoli: blood
Oxygen/carbon
dioxide exchanges
follow gas partial
pressure gradients
These gradients
refer to plasma gas
content, not gases
bound to Hgb
O2 out/CO2 in
Tissues: blood
Internal resp:
O2 out/CO2 in
Tissues: blood
Figure 22.17
Oxygenation of Blood
Rapid oxygenation of blood in pulmonary
capillaries- 0.25 sec
Figure 22.18
Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling
Ventilation amt gas reaching alveoli
Perfusion blood flow to alveoli
Ventilation and perfusion must be tightly regulated

for efficient gas exchange
Autoregulation in pulmonary arterioles: (opposite from all

other arterioles in the circulation)
If PO2 is low, arterioles constrict
If PO2 is high, arterioles dilate
PCO2 in alveoli cause changes in the diameters of the

bronchioles
In passageways where alveolar PCO2 is high, bronchioles

dilate
In passageways where alveolar PCO2 PCO2 is low,
bronchioles constrict
PO2
PCO2
in alveoli
Reduced alveolar ventilation;
excessive perfusion
Pulmonary arterioles Reduced alveolar ventilation;

serving these alveoli reduced perfusion
constrict
PO2
PCO2
in alveoli
Enhanced alveolar ventilation;

inadequate perfusion
Pulmonary arterioles Enhanced alveolar ventilation;

serving these alveoli enhanced perfusion
dilate
Figure 22.19
Surface Area and Thickness of the

Respiratory Membrane
Respiratory membranes
0.5 - 1 m thick; allows efficient gas exchange
>>> surface area
Wet lungs, edema = thickened membranes, < gas

exchange
Emphysema,walls of adjacent alveoli break

through, decrease surface area, < gas exchange
Internal Respiration
The factors promoting gas exchange between

systemic capillaries and tissue cells are the same as
those acting in the lungs
The partial pressures and diffusion gradients are

reversed
PO2 in tissue is always lower than in systemic

arterial blood
PO2 of venous blood draining tissues is 40 mm Hg

and PCO2 is 45 mm Hg
PLAY
InterActive Physiology :
Respiratory System: Gas Exchange, page 317
Oxygen Transport
Molecular oxygen is carried in the blood:
98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin (Hb) in RBCs
Rest is dissolved in plasma
Oxygen Transport: Role of Hemoglobin
Each Hb molecule binds 4 oxygen atoms
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
Hemoglobin that has released oxygen is called

reduced or deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
Fast & reversible rxn
Oxygen unloading
Lungs
HHb + O2
Oxygen loading
HbO2 + H+
Tissues
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Saturated hemoglobin four O2 bound (1 to each

heme)
Partially saturated hemoglobin 1, 2, or 3 O2 bound
After the first O2 binds or unbinds, others bind or

unbind more quickly; (affinity increases with
degree of saturation)
The rate that hemoglobin binds and releases oxygen

is regulated by:
PO2, temperature, blood pH, PCO2, and the

concentration of BPG (biphosphoglycerate)
Influence of PO2 on Hemoglobin Saturation
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve =

Hemoglobin saturation plotted against PO2
98% saturated arterial blood contains 20 ml

oxygen per 100 ml blood (20 vol %)
As arterial blood flows through capillaries, 5 ml

oxygen are released
The saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood

explains why breathing deeply increases the PO2
but has little effect on oxygen saturation in
hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Saturation Curve
Hemoglobin is almost completely saturated at a PO2

of 70 mm Hg
Further increases in PO2 produce only small

increases in oxygen binding
Further, even when PO2 is below normal levels,

oxygen loading and delivery to tissues is ok &
unloading is stimulated by < PO2
Only 2025% of bound oxygen is unloaded during

one systemic circulation
If oxygen levels in tissues drop:
More oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin and is

used by cells
Respiratory rate or cardiac output need not increase
Figure 22.20
Other Factors Influencing Hb Saturation
Temperature, H+, PCO2, and BPG
Modify the structure of hemoglobin and alter its

affinity for oxygen
> in above:
< hbs affinity for oxygen
> oxygen unloading
< act in the opposite manner
These parameters are all high in systemic

capillaries where oxygen unloading is the goal
Other Factors Influencing Hemoglobin

Saturation
In tissues, exercise >

temp > unloading
In tissues, > C02, > unloading
Figure 22.21
Factors That Increase Release of Oxygen by

Hemoglobin
As cells metabolize glucose, carbon dioxide is
released into the blood causing:
Increases in PCO2 and H+ concentration in capillary

blood
Declining pH (acidosis), which weakens the

hemoglobin-oxygen bond (Bohr effect)
Metabolizing cells have heat as a byproduct and

the rise in temperature increases BPG synthesis
All these factors ensure oxygen unloading in the

vicinity of working tissue cells
Carbon Dioxide Transport
Carbon dioxide: in blood in 3 forms
7-10% dissolved in plasma
20% bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin
70% (HCO3) Bicarbonate ion in plasma
Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and combines

with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which
quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions and
bicarbonate ions
CO2
Carbon
dioxide
H2 O
Water
H2CO3
Carbonic
acid
H+
Hydrogen
ion
HCO3
Bicarbonate
ion
In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversibly catalyzes

the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to
carbonic acid
Figure 22.22a
Figure 22.22b
Haldane Effect
< PO2, & < hb saturation = > CO2 can be carried in

the blood
In tissues, as > CO2 enters the blood:
> oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin (Bohr

effect)
> CO2 combines with hemoglobin, > HCO3
This situation is reversed in pulmonary circulation
Haldane Effect
Figure 22.23
Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood pH
The carbonic acidbicarbonate buffer system

resists blood pH changes
If hydrogen ion concentrations in blood begin to

rise, excess H+ is removed by combining with
HCO3
If hydrogen ion concentrations begin to drop,

carbonic acid dissociates, releasing H+
Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood pH
Changes in respiratory rate can also:
Alter blood pH
Provide a fast-acting system to adjust pH when it is

disturbed by metabolic factors
PLAY
InterActive Physiology :
Gas Transport, pages 1115
Respiratory Control Centers
Figure 22.24
Depth and Rate of Breathing
Inspiratory depth- how much respiratory center

stimulates respiratory muscles
Rate of respiration- how long inspiratory center is

active
Respiratory centers in the pons and medulla are

sensitive to both excitatory and inhibitory stimuli
Depth and Rate of Breathing- chemical regulation
Most important = arterial blood levels of:
CO2
O2
H+
Levels detected by:
Central chemoreceptors medulla
Peripheral chemoreceptors- aortic arch & carotids
Neural & Chemical Influences on Brain Stem

Respiratory Centers
2.
1.
7.
4.
6.
5.
3.
Figure 22.25
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
> levels detected by chemoreceptors in medulla
> blood CO2 diffuses into cerebrospinal fluid

CO2
Carbon
dioxide
H2 O
Water
H2CO3
Carbonic
acid
H+
Hydrogen
ion
HCO3
Bicarbonate
ion
CSF cannot buffer the H+ & < pH; brain protection needed
PCO2 levels rise (hypercapnia):
increased depth and rate of breathing;
return to homeostasis
Depth and Rate of

Breathing: PCO2
hyperventilation
Figure 22.26
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
Hypoventilation slow and shallow breathing due

to abnormally low PCO2 levels
Apnea (breathing cessation) may occur until PCO2

levels rise
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PO2
Peripheral chemoreceptors monitor arterial O2
< PO2 (to 60 mm Hg) before O2 is stimulus for

increased ventilation
If CO2 not removed (emphysema, chronic

bronchitis), chemoreceptors adapt, become
unresponsive to < PCO2
Then, PO2 levels become the principal respiratory

stimulus (hypoxic drive)
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Figure 22.27
Depth and Rate of Breathing: Arterial pH
< pH or Acidosis may reflect:
Carbon dioxide retention
Accumulation of lactic acid
Excess fatty acids in patients with diabetes mellitus
Respiratory system controls will attempt to raise

the pH by increasing respiratory rate and depth
even if O2 & CO2 levels are ok
Respiratory Adjustments: Exercise

From intensity and duration of exercise
Vigorous exercise:
> Ventilation - 20 fold
Breathing- deeper and more vigorous
Respiratory rate may by unchanged
Above is called Hyperpnea
Exercise-enhanced breathing is not prompted by an

increase in PCO2 or a decrease in PO2 or pH
These levels remain surprisingly constant during

exercise
Respiratory Adjustments: High Altitude
Move quickly above 8000 ft
acute mountain sickness headache, shortness of

breath, nausea, and dizziness
Acclimatization
Increased ventilation 2-3 L/min higher than at sea

level
Chemoreceptors become more responsive to PCO2
Substantial decline in PO2 stimulates peripheral

chemoreceptors
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

(COPD)
Chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema
Pts have a history of:
Smoking
Dyspnea, where labored breathing occurs and gets

progressively worse
Coughing, frequent pulmonary infections
Respiratory failure, hypoxemia, carbon dioxide

retention, and respiratory acidosis
Pathogenesis of COPD
genetic
Figure 22.28
Asthma
Characterized by dyspnea, wheezing, and chest

tightness
Active inflammation of the airways precedes

bronchospasms
Airway inflammation is an immune response

caused by release of IL-4 and IL-5, which
stimulate IgE and recruit inflammatory cells
Airways thickened with inflammatory exudates

magnify the effect of bronchospasms
Tuberculosis
Infectious disease caused by the bacterium

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms include fever, night sweats, weight loss,

a racking cough, and splitting headache
Treatment requires a 12-month course of

antibiotics
High in homeless population; low compliance

due to length of treatment
Lung Cancer
Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the U.S.
90% of all patients with lung cancer were smokers
The three most common types are:
Squamous cell carcinoma (20-40% of cases) arises

in bronchial epithelium
Adenocarcinoma (25-35% of cases) originates in

peripheral lung area
Small cell carcinoma (20-25% of cases) contains

lymphocyte-like cells that originate in the primary
bronchi and subsequently metastasize
Developmental Aspects
Mucosae of the bronchi and lung alveoli are

present by the 8th week
By the 28th week, a baby born prematurely can

breathe on its own; < surfactant before this
During fetal life, the lungs are filled with fluid and
blood bypasses the lungs
Gas exchange takes place via the placenta
Respiratory System Development
Figure 22.29
Developmental Aspects
At birth, respiratory centers are activated, alveoli

inflate, and lungs begin to function
Respiratory rate is highest in newborns and

slows until adulthood
Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli are

formed until young adulthood; teen smoking leads
to < alveoli; irreversible deficit
Respiratory efficiency decreases in old age

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Respiratory Volumes

Amt air in or out @ rest; 500 ml

Amt air forcibly inhaled after TV; 2100-3200 ml

Amt air forcibly exhaled after TV; 1000-1200 ml

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Max. amt that can be inspired after TV

Max amt that can be expired after max.

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Anatomical dead space volume of air in the

Alveolar dead space alveoli that cease to act in

Total dead space sum of alveolar and anatomical

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pulmonary Function Tests

Spirometry evaluates respiratory function; DX between

Obstructive - increased airway resistance;

Example: Chronic bronchitis

> TLC, FRC, RV

Restrictive - reduction in total lung capacity;

< VC, TLC, FRC, RV

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pulmonary Function Tests

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) measures the

(TV dead space)

Slow, deep breathing increases AVR and rapid,

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nonrespiratory Air Movements

Most result from reflex action

Examples include: coughing, sneezing, crying,

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Properties of Gases:

The partial pressure of each gas is directly

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Properties of Gases: Henrys Law

When a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid,

Carbon dioxide: > soluble

Oxygen: < (1/20th) soluble

Nitrogen is practically insoluble in plasma

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Composition of Alveolar Gas

The atmosphere = > oxygen & nitrogen

Alveoli = > carbon dioxide & water vapor

These differences from:

Gas exchanges in the lungs oxygen diffuses from

Humidification of air by conducting passages

The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas

Factors influencing the movement of oxygen and

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas

This steep gradient allows oxygen partial pressures

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas

It is 20 times more soluble in plasma than oxygen

It diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ventilation amt gas reaching alveoli

Perfusion blood flow to alveoli

Ventilation and perfusion must be tightly regulated

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Autoregulation in pulmonary arterioles: (opposite from all

If PO2 is low, arterioles constrict