ROLE OF PANCREAS AS AN

ENDOCRINE GLAND

Functional Anatomy:

1.

2.

3.

Digestive

Endocrine

Acini

Islets of Langerhans

Trypsin and
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypolypeptid
ase
Prolactase

1.

2.
3.
4.

Glucagons (alpha cells,

25%)
Insulin (Beta cells, 60%)
Somatostatin (Delta, 10%)
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP
cells)

Concentration of pancreatic hormones is

higher in the liver than the peripheral
tissues
Route of secretion: pancreas pancreatic
vein portal vein liver

Secretes both INSULIN and

GLUCAGON
2 cell types:
1.
2.

acini secrete digestive juices

islets of Langerhans :
1.
2.
3.

alpha (25%) secrete glucagons

beta (60%) secrete insulin
delta (10%) secrete somatostatin

Insulin inhibits glucagons secretion,

and somatostatin inhibits both
insulin and glucagons secretion

INSULIN

A protein with a MW of 5805,

composing of 2 amino acid chains
connected to each other by disulfide
linkage
Synthesis begins with translation of
the insulin RNA by ribosomes (rough
ER) Insulin Prohormone (MW 11500)
cleaving (smooth ER) Proinsulin
(MW 9000) cleaving (Golgi
apparatus) Insulin
Half-life about 6 minutes and part of it
will be broken down by insulinase in
the liver, kidneys and muscles

INSULIN

Secretion is directly related to the

availability of energy-giving foods in the
diet
It stores excess carbohydrates as
glycogen mainly in the liver and muscles
and some as fats stored in the adipose
tissue
It also causes fat storage in the adipose
tissue
It has a direct effect in promoting amino
acid uptake by cells and converting them
in protein and inhibit the breakdown of
the latter in the cell

Effect of Insulin

Binds and activates with the a subunits

of receptor protein at the cell
membrane which will in turn activate
the b subunits located inside the cell
The subunits which then become an
activated enzyme, a protein kinase, will
in turn activate other intracellular
enzymes
Longer effects would occur in hours and
days due to the changed rates of
translation of mRNAs at the ribosomes
to form new proteins and

Effect of Insulin

Slower effects from changed rates of

transcription of DNA in the cell
nucleus
The end result is that the cells
membrane almost immediately
becomes permeable to glucose,
amino acids, potassium ions and
phosphate ions
With the entry of glucose and other
ions, other intracellular enzymes will
become activated

Glucose Metabolism in Muscles

Under normal conditions, muscles use fatty acids

as source of energy
During exercise, by contraction of the muscles
fibers, glucose is used as source of energy even
at the absence or minimal concentration of
insulin
Immediately after a meal, glucose is taken up by
the muscles initially as source of energy due to
the large secretion of insulin by the pancreas
Excess glucose will be stored as glycogen in the
muscle

Liver Uptake, Storage, and Use of

Glucose
After a meal,

Insulin inactivates liver phosphorylase which

will prevent the breakdown of glycogen
Insulin enhances uptake of glucose by the
liver cells by increasing the activity of
glucokinase
Insulin increases the activities of the
enzymes that promote glycogen synthesis
such as glycogen synthase, which is
responsible for polymerization of the
monsaccharide units to form the glycogen
molecules

In between meals,
Decreased glucose levels cause
decreased insulin secretion
glycogen storage processes are
stopped phosphorylase is
activated glycogen is split into
glucose phosphate glucose
phosphatase will then remove the
phosphate from the glucose and the
latter is then returned to the blood

Other Effects of Glucose

Excess glucose after glycogen is stored

will be converted to fatty acids which
are subsequently transformed to
triglycerides and low-density
lipoproteins
The triglycerides and LDL will be
transported to the adipose tissues and
stored as fat
Gluconeogenesis is inhibited due to the
effects of insulin on the liver enzymes
and the decreased release of amino
acids required for gluconeogenesis

Effect on Fat Metabolism

Increases the utilization of glucose and

decreases the utilization of fats fat sparer
Promotes fatty acid synthesis in the liver which
then will be transported to and stored in the
adipose tissues
Glycolysis via glycolytic pathway wth acetyl
coenzyme A, substrate for the production of
fatty acids
Citrate and Iso-citrate ions from the citric
acid cycle activates carboxylate acetyl-CoA
to form malonyl-CoA
Triglycerides, the storage form of fatty acids,
are split into fatty acids by insulin and
absorbed into the adipose cells as
triglycerides
Inhibition of the hormone-sensitive lipase

Glucagon

Purpose: Assist insulin in regulating blood

glucose (sugar) in the normal range (actions are
opposite of insulin)
Action: Forces many cells of the body to
release (or produce) glucose (increasing blood
sugar)
Secreted in response to: Low blood glucose
Secretion inhibited by: High blood glucose
Disease due to deficient action: Some
times nothing, sometimes hypoglycemia
Disease due to excess action:
Hyperglycemia
Tumor called: Glucagonoma

Somatostatin

Purpose: Regulate the production and

excretion of other endocrine tumors
Action: Slows down production of insulin,
glucagon, gastrin, and other endocrine tumors
Secreted in response to: High levels of
other endocrine hormones
Secretion inhibited by: Low levels of other
endocrine hormones
Disease due to deficient action: Poorly
defined
Disease due to excess action: Diabetes
(inhibits insulin production), gallstones, and
dietary fat intolerance.
Tumor called: Somatostatinoma