ECONOMIC SUCCESS OF THE PLANT

CONTINUOUS OPERATION OF THE PLANT

TROUBLE FREE OPERATION PLANT
OPTIMISATION OF KILN OPERATION

In this module...
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESSES
UNDERSTANDING OF THE IMPORTANT PROCESSES
ZONES OF ROTARY KILN
TYPES OF KILN SYSTEMS
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF KILN SYSTEM

CHEMICAL PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
REACTIONS IN BURNING ZONE
MODIFICATIONS TO MINERAL STRUCTURES
DEHYDRATION OF ARGILLACEOUS MINERALS
DECOMPOSITION OF CARBONATES
REACTION BETWEEN SOLID PHASES
REACTION IN THE PRESENCE OF LIQUID PHASES
a.MELT FORMATION
b.ALITE FORMATION
REACTION DURING COOLING

GENERAL CEMENT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

RAW GRINDING

CLINKERIZATION

LIMESTONE LOADING
LIMESTONE TRANSPORT
TO CRUSHER

SEM

I DR
YK
ILN

VRM - I
QUARRY

CRUSHING

CRUSHER
DRY
PH
&

VRM - II

CEMENT DESPATCH
PACKING

CEMENT GRINDING
WAGON LOADING
BALL MILL
PACKING
MACHINE

LORRY LOADING

CEMENT
VERTICAL
ROLLER MILL

PC
KIL
N

Temperature

Natural minerals

Hydraulic mixture
Time, Pressure

Clinker burning process - main steps

# Disintegration of original rawmix components

# Formation of new mineral structures
Clinker is formed at 1450 degC and at oxidising

atmosphere
Reducing atmosphere will yield a brownish clinker
having quicker setting and lower strength.

 Dehydration of rawmaterial (Argillaceous minerals)

Decomposition of carbonates (Calcination)

Clinkerisation
Chemical factors ( composition)

Mineralogical factors
Physical factors (fineness, particle size distribution)
Homogeneity of rawmeal

 First five reactions - in Preheater

 CaCO3 decomposes between 600 - 800 degC

Quartz and clay decomposes to liberate free reactive
Al2O3 and SiO2.
CaO being formed, reacts to form C2S and then C3S
CaO also reacts with Al2O3 and Fe2O3 to form CA
and other intermediate components like C12A7,
which will decompose at higher temperatures at a
later stage
C2S content is maximum at around 1300 degC
where the formation of liquid phase starts
Most of the C2S converted to C3S in liquid phase

 Around 90% of calcination is completed in the

precalciner
Precalciner reduces the thermal loading of kiln and
there by the length of the kiln.
The time taken by the rawmeal to cross the PC is
called the residence time .
Higher the residence time, higher will be the time
available for the degree of completion of calcination
reaction

The residence time can be increased by

- increasing the length of the precalciner and PC bend
modification
- by increasing the diameter and thereby reducing the
velocity and hence the residence time is increased
Liberation of CO2 in Precalciner is due to
- the calcination reaction
- the combustion of fuel
as the above reactions progresses, the partial
pressure of CO2 increases in the precalciner

CaCO3

----------> CaO + CO2

MgCO3

----------> MgO + CO2

Mineral
Calcite

Decomposition
Temperature
890 degC

Dolomite

745 degC

Magnesite 650 degC

Highly endothermic reaction
Above 890 degC, decomposition is completed fully
At the end of calcination 20 to 30, % free lime is found

Quantity of CO2 generated from decarbonation

Rawmeal Factor X Avg TC X 22.414 X 44
= ------------------------------------------------Kg of CO2/kg of clinker
100 X 100
Quantity of CO2 generated from combustion
%of Carbon( by wt) X (44/12) X Sp.Heat Consumption
= ------------------------------------------------ Kg of CO2/kg of clinker
100 X C.V of coal

 Polymorphic transition - modifications to the solid lattice

on minerals and there is no change in the chemical
composition e.g. : Aragonite
Calcite

2SiO2. AL2O3. 2H2O

Kaolinite

2(AL2O3.2SiO2) + 4 H2O

400 - 750 C

Metakaolinite

influenced by

Type of mineral, particle size

Presence of impurities
Gas temperature

 Occurs between calcination and the onset of liquid

formation
Several intermediate compounds are formed and finally
Free Lime (C), Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A), Tetra Calcium
Alumino Ferrite (C4AF) and Dicalcium silicate are formed
as below

CaCO3

-----> CaO + CO2

CaO. AL2O3 + 2CaO

----> 3CaO . AL2O3

CaO. AL2O3 + 3CaO + Fe2O3 -----> 4CaO . AL2O3. Fe2O3

CaO.SiO2 + 2SiO2

------> 2 CaO. SiO2

 Melting takes place between 1260 and

1310 degC
Endothermic process
Rawmix composition determines the
# temperature of initial liquid formation
# the amount of liquid formation
# physical properties of the liquid such as
its viscosity, density etc..
% Liquid at 1450 degC
= 3.0 AL2O3 +2.25 Fe2O3 + Alkalies + MgO

Alumina Modulus
AM = AL2O3 / Fe2O3
Silica Modulus
SM = (SiO2) / (AL2O3 + Fe2O3 )
Optimum value of alumina modulus is
around 1.38
Amount of liquid is increased by reducing
the silica modulus

Liquid phase
CaO + 2CaO.SiO2 -------------> 3CaO . SiO2
C3S (Solid)
t >1250

Formation starts at 1250 degC as C3S and

free lime are only available as Solid
particles in kiln Charge
In the presence of liquid phase CaO and
C2S are dissolved and C3S is formed
When the temperature reaches 1450degC,
in the solid phase C2S, C3S and a little free
lime only will be available

 Rate of cooling is a critical parameter

Slow cooling results in decomposition of C 3S
back to C2S and consequently results in
* Reduced cement strength
* Poor grindability
Cooling process influences the state of
crystallisation and hence the reactivity of
clinker
The maximum rate of decomposition occurs
at 1175 degC

 Rapid cooled clinker will have

* The same composition as it had around
the clinkerisation temperature
* Improved Grindability
* Lower proportion of decomposed alite
and consequently a higher proportion of
alite in the clinker

Sensitive Areas
Selection of the bricks based on the specific load
based on our experience
Heat consumption assured by the designer
Tyre

CZ

Falling of
Coating
Unstable
Coating

SZ

Temperature
Thermal
Shock

Ring
Formation
Abrasio
n
KCl
K,
C
Na,
MZ
Cl,
K2SO
S

Clinker
Melt
Infiltratio
n

Sulfates
,
Chloride
s,

Infiltration

 CALCINING ZONE
HEATING ZONE
LIQUID ZONE
SINTERING ZONE
COOLING ZONE

BURNING
ZONE

 Chemical reaction in kiln determines the

formation of the hydraulic minerals - alite (C3S),
belite( C2S), aluminate (C3A) and ferrite (C4AF)
The resultant cement properties depends not only
on the chemical composition of the clinker but also
the degree of completion of the reaction
Clinker formation refers to the physical
agglomeration process which results in a nodule
size of 2 to 20 mm
The nodule size has a impact on kiln and cooler
operation
The grindability of clinker is influenced by the
nodule size

 Decarbonation of carbonates in the rawmeal into free

CaO liberating CO2
Due to highly endothermic reaction, the material
temperature is around 900 degC
Partial pressure of CO2 below the surface is high enough
to generate rushes of uncalcined rawmeal with a high ,
unsatisfied heat requirement
Rush of uncalcined rawmeal causes sudden cooling of the
kiln burning zone
Considerable formation of C2S raises the temperature as
soon as all the CO2 has been expelled

HEATING ZONE
After calcining zone and up to the liquid zone
Located behind the flame where the bed of the kiln
charge has dark colour
Reaction between Lime & Alumina and Lime and Iron
are taking place to form temporary intermediate products
As there is no heat consumption in this zone, the
temperature raises rapidly
Temperature reaches 13000 C at the end of the heating
zone
Formation of a hard and dense coating begins
Formation of liquid phases starts

 Temperature 1300 to 1350 0 c

Contents mainly depends on the rawmix composition
Nodulisation of clinker starts
Size of nodules depends on
# the quantity and properties of the liquid phase
# size distribution of the solid particles in the feed
# residence time of the material in liquid phase
Nodulisation starts by capillary bonding succeeded by
crystal bonding while the fluid material is the binding
agent
Length of the zone depends on the temperature profile
and its composition of rawmix
Formation of C3S starts but slow

HIGH TEMPERATURE ZONE

Directly under the illuminated part of the
flame
Formation and growing of C3S particles and
the sintering of the solid phases
The most viscous kiln charge exists
Temperature is between 1400 and 15000C
Ends where the Freezing of material takes
place as the material has passed the flame

 Formation of C3S is faster where the material is

nodulised and not agglomerated
Improved and more frequent contact is achieved
between lime rich particles and silica rich particles

COOLING ZONE
Material starts to solidify and agglomeration
occurs due to cooling
If the cooling is slower, C3S decomposes to back to
C2S and free CaO
Free CaO reacts with unstable C-A minerals to
form C3A
Grindability of clinker is improved in rapid cooling
Rapid cooling is achieved by locating the MZ near
the discharge end
In rapid cooling, clinker exit temperature is high
followed by a sudden cooling the first compartment
of cooler

CZ - Calcining Zone
HZ - Heating Zone
LZ - Liquid Zone
MZ - Max Temp Zone
AZ - Cooling Zone
The reduction of AM, SM or LSF will produce as
easily burnable rawmix
Change in rawmix burnability will affect the relative
lengths of the zones

Heat of Reaction

Kcals / Kg
clinker

Evaporation of combined
water

20

Decomposition of clay
minerals
Decomposition of
carbonates
Heat of formation of
clinker minerals
Total heat of reaction

35
475
-130
400

 Loop controls used to maintain the required process

variables within the desired level automatically
Done by means of Programmable Logic Controls
(PLC)
In PLC , the set point is compared with actual process
variable and the difference is calculated as Error ( E)
Based on the calculated error and tuned loop
constants, the PLC varies the position of the final
control element like valves / speed of drives
automatically
The speed of loop is tuned to match the set point and
actual value of the process variable always.

Loop tuning is done by varying the following

parameters
- proportionality constant
- derivative constant
- integral constant

ADVANTAGES
Protection and safety of working personnel
Continuous stable operation of kiln
Production of well burnt good quality of clinker
maximum production with energy efficiency
longer life of kiln refractory
Lesser heat consumption

 Kiln feed rate Vs Dosing valve position

Poldos bin level Vs Silo extraction valve
GCT pressure Vs ESP fan damper / speed
PH outlet pressure Vs PH fan damper/speed
PC temperature Vs PC Pfister coal feed rate
kiln hood pressure Vs Vent fan damper / speed
Cooler grate speed Vs First compartment pressure
First grate speed Vs Second / third grate speed

 Cooler fan flow Vs Cooler Fan speed

Cooler exit temperature Vs Bagfilter inlet fresh air
damper
Cooler exit temperature Vs cooler water spray
Cascade loop - kiln hood draught with Booster fan
speed and Vent Fan damper

SP kiln

SP kiln

ILC E kiln

ILC E kiln

ILC kiln

ILC Kiln
Calciner vessel is built into the kiln riser pipe
Through the calciner, the kiln exit gas as well as the
tertiary air from grate cooler passes through
Degree of calcination is around 90 - 95% as the
temperature is in the range of 870 - 900 degC
Gas velocity is in the range of 5-7m/sec and
retention time is around 3.3 seconds
Secondary air is around 900-1100 degC and Tertiary
air around 750 -900 degC
CO and O2 analysers are provided at kiln inlet, PC
exit and Preheater exit

ILC kiln

SLC D kiln

SLCD kiln

SLC kiln

 Calciner placed parallel to the kiln riser duct

Tertiary air from cooler enters the calciner at the bottom
Temperature range 870 - 900 degC and the calcination is
around 90 - 95 %
A vortex is created in calciner for effective mixing of tertiary
air, rawmeal and fuel
Retention time is around 3 seconds and velocity is around 5.5
to 7.5 m/sec
Two ID fans in kiln string and calciner string regulates the
necessary flows in the respective strings
Material from the Lowest but one calciner string cyclone is
joined with material from lowest kiln string cyclone and sent to
the calciner
After calcination, the material is separated and sent to kiln
from the bottommost cyclone stage in the calciner string

SLC kiln

SLC I kiln

SLC I kiln

SLC Vs ILC

ILC Calciner

SLC Calciner

SLC D Calciner

Kiln Dimensioning
VOLUMETRIC LOAD
Expressed as production in TPD clinker per m3
of kiln volume inside the lining (tpd / m3)
BURNING ZONE LOAD
Expressed as Kcal / hr released through the kiln
burner per m2 cross sectional area of the kiln
inside the lining ( 106 kcal/h/m2)

 With conventional cyclones, a DP of 700-800

mmWG and ID fan sp. Power of 12 unit/MT
Latest developments with LP cyclones and high
efficiency cyclones
In LP cyclones, pressure drop is achieved by
# larger inlet and outlet area
# less gas velocity and more space for gas flow
# more length of central pipe
# first stage is designed for high degree of separation
by keeping more length of cylindrical portion

Cyclone design

Immersion tube - Segmental

Developments in Preheater
Technology
Increased retention time in precalciner
Retrofitting of existing cyclones by
# modifying the cyclone inlet cross section
# angle of entry
# altering the shape of immersion tube
Reduction in pressure drop by 20-25% and
reduction in gas temperature by around 40
degC (20-30kcals / kg of clinker)
Sixth stage preheater brings down the exit
temperature by another 25- 30 degC

 Modifying the shape of the calciner vessel

Relocation of the fuel and meal entry points
Altering the point of mixing of tertiary air with
kiln gases
Recirculation of material to calciner to increase
the material retention time and obtain high
degree of calcination at lower temperature
Latest generation of precalciner kilns having a
thermal loading of up to 6.5 TPD/M3/Day

Improved kiln output and refractory lining (lesser load )

More stable and better controlled kiln operation
Better kiln availability
Better possibility of using waste and low grade fuels at PC
Low NOx emission from kiln as 60% of fuel is burnt at PC
Improved heat economy through reduction of heat losses
Recent Developments aimed at
Complete combustion, even of less reactive fuels (pet coke)
Simultaneous use of different variety of fuels
Cost saving, compact configuration
Complete combustion in PC is determined by rapid initial
ignition, adequate retention time and intensive mixing of
fuel with combustion air

 Degree of Filling
P
%F =
------------Di3 x % I x Rev
where % F = Filling degrees in Kiln (%)
P = Kiln production (TPD)
Di = Internal Diameter of kiln (m)
%I = Inclination of kiln (%)
Rev = Kiln speed (Rpm)
normal value 15% to 20 %

 Grate loading - 40-50 Tpd/m2 grate at nominal kiln

production rate
Cooling air requirement 2.2 to 2.5 Nm3 / MT of clinker
in conventional grate cooler
Cooler Efficiency
heat in air to kiln
= ------------- ------------ x 100 %
heat in clinker to cooler
Later generation of coolers with high efficiency of
power and heat smoother kiln operation

State of the art systems