Radiography introduction

for ndt

Electromagnetic radiation (photon), of shorter

wavelength than ultraviolet radiation. Produced
by bombardment of atoms by high-quntumenergy particles. Radiation wavelength is from
10-11 m
A device for generating X-rays by accelerating
electrons from a filament to strike a metal
target (anode).
An image storage medium consisting of a
transparent base, usually coated on both sides
with a radiation sensitive emulsion.

History of Radiography
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (18451923)

Nature of Penetrating
Radiation

Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

They are not detected by human senses (cannot
be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or
magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at
interfaces between two different materials.
They pass through matter until they have a
chance encounter with an atomic particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their
energy and the matter they are traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and
can damage or destroy living cells.

Bremsstrahlung
Radiation

Bremsstrahlung
Radiation

from German "bremsen" to brake, and "Strahlung" radiation").

Electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a
charged particle. In an X-ray tube this is the radiation that is
emitted when electrons are suddenly "braked" when they collide
with the target after being emitted from the cathode.
Bremsstrahlung is characterised as a continuous spectrum with a
peak that shifts to higher intensities and towards higher frequency
energies with increasing voltage potential.
Increasing voltage past the threshold value required for
characteristic radiation does not shift the spike to a shorter
wavelength but does increase their intensity. For a given applied
voltage X-ray intensity is zero up to a certain wavelength termed
the short-wavelength limit (SWL). There is no abrupt limit on the
long wavelength side of the curve.
As the voltage is increased the SWL and the position of the peak
bremsstrahlung moves to the left and the intensity at all
wavelengths increase.
At some critical voltage that is dependent on the target material,
characteristic radiation (c.v.) is emitted. These are characterised

K-shell Emission
Radiation

Bremsstrahlung Radiation

1.The abrupt acceleration of the charged

particles (electrons) produces Bremsstrahlung
photons.
2The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an
atom
3. A tungsten electron of higher energy (from
an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell.
4. The energy lost by the falling electron shows
up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile,
higher energy electrons fall into the vacated
energy state in the outer shell, and so on

 Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may
emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete
energies. The emission of gamma rays does
not alter the number of protons or neutrons in
the nucleus but instead has the effect of
moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower
energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray
emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha
decay, and other nuclear decay processes.

. Half-life
. Half-life is defined as the time
required for the activity of any
particular radionuclide to decrease to
one-half of its initial value.

excitation and ionization

1.The various types of penetrating
radiation impart their energy to
matter primarily through excitation
and ionization of orbital electrons
The term "excitation" is used to
describe an interaction where
electrons acquire energy from a
passing charged particle but are not
removed completely from their atom.

ionization"
Excited electrons may subsequently emit
energy in the form of x-rays during the
process of returning to a lower energy state.
The term "ionization" refers to the complete
removal of an electron from an atom
following the transfer of energy from a
passing charged particle. In describing the
intensity of ionization, the term "specific
ionization" is often used. This is defined as
the number of ion pairs formed per unit path
length for a given type of radiation.

The intensity of the influence

at any given radius (r) is the
source strength divided by the
area of the sphere.

atteunation

 attenuation

the intensity of photons

Where: I = the intensity of photons
transmitted across some distance x
I0 = the initial intensity of photons s
= a proportionality constant that
reflects the total probability of a
photon being scattered or absorbed
= the linear attenuation coefficient
x = distance traveled

Discuss why Xrays are

important and
how we use
them.

Dentists, doctors, NDE inspectors,

and airport personal
are just some
examples of people who use X-rays
in their jobs. X-rays can be used to
"look inside" an object and to locate
defects in materials.

RADIOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

In photography, reflected light rays from the

object expose the film to produce an image.
In radiography, X-rays that pass through the
object expose the film to produce an image.
Differences in the types and amounts of the
materials that the X-rays must travel through
are responsible for the details of the
radiographic image.

THE DISCOVERY OF
RADIOACTIVITY
When the nucleus of an element
decays or disintegrates radiation is
emitted, and this kind of element is
called a radioactive element.
Minerals that glow when sunlight is
exposed on them are called
fluorescent minerals.

THE DISCOVERY OF XRAYS

X-rays were discovered by William
Roentgen while experimenting with a
cathode radiation
. Henri Becquerel discovered the
radioactive properties of uranium
when he stored a piece with some
film and notched an image on the
film. Uranium was named a
radioactive element because if gives
off something that is invisible to the

ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

Marie and Pierre Curie advanced the study of
radiation and discovered the
radioactivematerials radium and polonium.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that remain identical to all other particles.
The atoms of one element are different from
those of all other element.
Compounds are made when atoms of
different elements are chemically combined
together.

CHEMICAL FORMULA
Chemical formulas are used to describe the
types of atoms and their numbers in an
element or compound.
The atoms of each element are represented
by one or two different letters.
When more than one atom of a specific
element is found in a molecule, a subscript is
used to indicate this in the chemical formula.
Carbon Dioxide > CO2
Sugar > C6H12O6

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Subatomic particles are particles that are
smaller than the atom. Protons, neutrons,
and electrons are the three main subatomic
particles found in an atom. Protons have a
positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember
this is to remember that both proton and
positive start with the letter "P." Neutrons
have no electrical charge. An easy way to
remember this is to remember that both
neutron and no electrical charge start with
the letter "N

 Neutrons are all identical to each other, just as

protons are.
Atoms of a particular element must have the
same number of protons but can have different
numbers of neutrons.
When an element has different variants that,
while all having the same number of protons,
have differing numbers of neutrons, these
variants are called isotopes.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS

NUMBERS
a

 An element's or isotope's atomic

number tells how many protons are
in its atoms.
An element's or isotope's mass
number tells how many protons and
neutrons in its atoms.

 Electrons spin and rotate around the

outside of the nucleus.
As the electrons circle the nucleus
they travel at certain energy levels
but can "jump" between different
energy levels if they gain or lose
energy.

STABLE AND UNSTABLE

ATOMS

STABLE AND UNSTABLE

ATOMS
Electromagnetic fields cause like charges to repel
each other and unlike charges to attract each other.
The protons stay together in the nucleus because the
strong force opposes and overcomes the forces of
repulsion from the electromagnetic field.
Binding energy is the energy that is associated with the
strong force, and this energy holds the nucleus together.
A stable atom is an atom that has enough binding
energy to hold the nucleus together permanently.
An unstable atom does not have enough binding
energy to hold the nucleus together permanently and is
called a radioactive atom

RADIOACTIVITY AND
RADIOISOTOPES
Radioactivity is the release of energy and
matter due to a change in the nucleus of
an atom.
Radioisotopes are isotopes that are
unstable and release radiation. All isotopes
are not radioisotopes.
Transmutation occurs when a radioactive
element attempts to become stabilized
and transforms into a new element.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
As an unstable atom tries to reach a
stable form, energy and matter are
released from the nucleus. This
spontaneous change in the nucleus is
called radioactive decay.
When there is a change in the
nucleus and one element changes
into another, it is called
transmutation.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS
The symbol for Uranium-238 =
This shows you that Uranium has a mass number of 238 and
an atomic number of 92.
Symbols are also utilized to represent alpha and beta
particles.
The symbol for an alpha particle =

The symbol for a beta particle is

The chemical symbol for a neutron =

A nuclear reaction can be described by an

equation, which must be balanced.
The symbol for an atom or atomic particle
includes the symbol of the element, the mass
number, and the atomic number.
The mass number, which describes the number
of protons and neutrons, is attached at the
upper left of the symbol.
The atomic number, which describes the
number of protons in the nucleus, is attached at
the lower left of the symbol.

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
The term half-life describes how long it
will take for half of the atoms to decay,
and is constant for a given isotope.
The curie the unit of measure used to
describe the radioactivity of radioactive
material. (1C = 3.7 X 1010
disintegrations/sec)
The disintegration of the atoms from
different isotopes can produce different
amounts of radiation.

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
(CONTINUED
The half-life of radioisotopes varies from
seconds to billions of years.
Carbon-dating uses the half-life of Carbon14 to find the approximate age of an object
that is 40,000 years old or younger.
Radiographers use half-life information to
make adjustments in the film exposure time
due to the changes in radiation intensity
that occurs as radioisotopes degrade.

half-life affect an isotope

How does the half-life affect an isotope?
Let's look closely at how the half-life affects an
isotope. Suppose you have 10 grams of Barium139. It has a half-life of 86 minutes. After 86
minutes, half of the atoms in the sample would
have decayed into another element,
Lanthanum-139. Therefore, after one half-life,
you would have 5 grams of Barium-139, and 5
grams of Lanthanum-139. After another 86
minutes, half of the 5 grams of Barium-139
would decay into Lanthanum-139; you would
now have 2.5 grams of Barium-139 and 7.5
grams of Lanthanum-139.

X-RAY GENERATION
The three things needed to create xrays are a source of electrons, a
means of accelerating the electrons
to high speeds, and a target for the
accelerated electron to interact with.
X-rays are produced when the free
electrons cause energy to be
released as they interact with the
atomic particles in the target.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
RADIATION

Radiation is an electromagnetic wave

that has no charge and no mass.
X-rays and gamma-rays can be
characterized by frequency,
wavelength, and energy.

INTERACTION OF RADIATION
AND MATTER
1.When radiation encounters a material, some of
the energy will be absorbed through
interactions subatomic particles.
2.More radiation will be absorbed by materials
with high atomic numbers (generally more
dense materials) because there are more
subatomic particles to interact with the
radiation.
3.Energy can never be created or destroyed;
therefore, the energy does not disappear but is
converted into something other form.

IONIZATION
An ion is an atom, group of atoms, or
a particle with a positive or negative
charge.
With an electron removed, the atom
possesses a plus one charge,
therefore it is a positive ion.
Consequently, the liberated electron
is a negative ion, as long as it exists
by itself and does not combine with
another atom.

1.The three principle level of ionization

are the Photoelectric effect, the
Compton Effect, and PairProduction.
2.This process of radiation absorption
is called ionization.

DEPTH OF PENETRATION OF
RADIATION ENERGY
1.The more subatomic particles in a material
the more quickly radiation energy will be
absorbed resulting in less depth of
penetration.
2.The half-value layer is the depth within a
material where half of the radiation energy
has been absorbed. The HVL is useful in
making material comparisons.
3.Higher energy radiation will penetrate
deeper into a material before it is absorbed.

RADIATION SOURCES
Artificially produced radioisotopes are
primarily used by industry because they
can be produced so as to have much more
radioactive energy that natural types.
The three ways to produce radioisotopes
are neutron activation, fission product
separation, and charged particle
bombardment.
Elements that are atomically unstable and
radioactive are called radioisotopes.

X-RAY GENERATORS
1.The three main parts to an x-ray
generator setup are an x-ray tube, a
high voltage power supply, and a
control unit.
2.The X-ray generator provides three
things that are required to produce Xrays, and they are a source of
electrons, a means of acceleration,
and a target for interaction.

 Radioisotopes, x-ray generation, and

particle accelerators are different
methods that generate radiation.
1.Devices that measure ionization are
the most commonly used instruments
for detecting radiation.
2.Three important words to help you
minimize your exposure to radiation
are time, distance, and shielding.

PRODUCING A RADIOGRAPH

Describe how an image is produced

on a radiograph.
The making of a radiograph requires
some type of recording mechanism.
The most common device is film. A
radiograph is actually a
photographic recording produced by
the passage of radiation through a
subject onto a film, producing what is
called a latent image of the subject.

PRODUCING A RADIOGRAPH
A latent image is an image that has
been created on the film due to the
interaction of radiation with the
material making up the film. This
latent image is not visible to the
naked eye until further processing
has taken place. To make the latent
image visible the film is processed by
exposure to chemicals similar to that
of photographic film.

DEVELOPING FILM

An image storage medium consisting

of a transparent base, usually coated
on both sides with a radiation
sensitive emulsion.

base
a base for which the other materials
are applied. The film base is usually
made from a clear, flexible plastic
such as cellulose acetate. This plastic
is similar to what you might find in a
wallet for holding pictures. The
principle function of the base is to
provide support for the emulsion. It is
not sensitive to radiation, nor can it
record an image.

DEVELOPING FILM
The emulsion
The film emulsion and protective coating
comprise the other two components and are
essentially made from the same material. They
are applied to the film during manufacturing
and usually take on a pale yellow color with a
glassy appearance. Although they are made
from the same material, they offer two distinct
features to the film. These features are
separated into the image layer of the
emulsion, and the protective layer.

DEVELOPING FILM
The protective layer
The protective layer has the important function of protecting the softer
emulsion layers below.
The softer layers of the gelatin coating are technically known as the
emulsion. An emulsion holds something in suspension. It is this material
in suspension that is sensitive to radiation and forms the latent image on
the film. During manufacturing of the film, silver bromide is added to the
solution of dissolved gelatin. When the gelatin hardens the silver bromide
crystals are held in suspension throughout the emulsion. Upon exposure
of the film to radiation, the silver bromide crystals become ionized in
varying degrees forming the latent image. Each grain or crystal of silver
bromide that has become ionized can be reduced or developed to form a
grain of black metallic silver. This is what forms the visible image on the
radiograph. This visible image is made up of an extremely large number
of silver crystals each is individually exposed to radiation but working
together as a unit to form the image.

DEVELOPING FILM
1. To begin the process of converting the
latent image on the radiograph to a useful
image we first expose the film to the
developer solution.
2.The function of the stop bath is to
quickly neutralize any excessive
development of the silver crystals.
3. The third step in development is the
fixer. Its function is to permanently fix the
image on the film.

DEVELOPING FILM
4. Once the film has been properly
developed, it is then rinsed in water
and dried so that it may be visually
examined.

summary
1.The three main part to radiographic
film are the base, the emulsion, and
the protective coating.
2.Steps in developing film include
developing, stopping the developer,
fixing, rinsing and drying.