PART III

Data Link Layer

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Position of the data-link layer

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Data link layer duties

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LLC and MAC sublayers

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IEEE standards for LANs

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Chapters
Chapter 10 Error Detection and Correction
Chapter 11 Data Link Control and Protocols
Chapter 12 Point-To-Point Access
Chapter 13 Multiple Access
Chapter 14 Local Area Networks
Chapter 15 Wireless LANs
Chapter 16 Connecting LANs
Chapter 17 Cellular Telephone and Satellite Networks
Chapter 18 Virtual Circuit Switching
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Chapter 10

Error Detection
and
Correction
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Note:
Data can be corrupted during
transmission. For reliable
communication, errors must be
detected and corrected.

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10.1 Types of Error

Single-Bit Error
Burst Error

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Note:
In a single-bit error, only one bit in the
data unit has changed.

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10.1

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Single-bit error

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Note:
A burst error means that 2 or more bits
in the data unit have changed.

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10.2

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Burst error of length 5

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10.2 Detection
Redundancy
Parity Check
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Checksum
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Note:
Error detection uses the concept of
redundancy, which means adding
extra bits for detecting errors at the
destination.

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10.3

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Redundancy

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10.4

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Detection methods

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10.5

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Even-parity concept

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Note:
In parity check, a parity bit is added to
every data unit so that the total
number of 1s is even
(or odd for odd-parity).

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Example 1
Supposethesenderwantstosendthewordworld.In
ASCIIthefivecharactersarecodedas
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
Thefollowingshowstheactualbitssent
1110111011011110111001001101100011001001

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Example 2
NowsupposethewordworldinExample1isreceivedby
thereceiverwithoutbeingcorruptedintransmission.
11101110110111101110010011011000
11001001
Thereceivercountsthe1sineachcharacterandcomesup
withevennumbers(6,6,4,4,4).Thedataareaccepted.

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Example 3
NowsupposethewordworldinExample1iscorrupted
duringtransmission.
11111110110111101110110011011000
11001001
Thereceivercountsthe1sineachcharacterandcomesup
withevenandoddnumbers(7,6,5,4,4).Thereceiver
knowsthatthedataarecorrupted,discardsthem,andasks
forretransmission.

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Note:
Simple parity check can detect all
single-bit errors. It can detect burst
errors only if the total number of
errors in each data unit is odd.

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10.6

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Two-dimensional parity

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Example 4
Supposethefollowingblockissent:
10101001001110011101110111100111
10101010

However,itishitbyaburstnoiseoflength8,andsome
bitsarecorrupted.
10100011100010011101110111100111
10101010

Whenthereceivercheckstheparitybits,someofthebits
donotfollowtheevenparityruleandthewholeblockis
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Note:
In two-dimensional parity check, a
block of bits is divided into rows and a
redundant row of bits is added to the
whole block.

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10.7

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CRC generator and checker

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10.8

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Binary division in a CRC generator

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10.9

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Binary division in CRC checker

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10.10

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A polynomial

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10.11 A polynomial representing a divisor

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Table 10.1 Standard polynomials

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Name

Polynomial

Application

CRC-8

x8 + x2 + x + 1

ATM header

CRC-10

x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1

ATM AAL

ITU-16

x16 + x12 + x5 + 1

HDLC

ITU-32

x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10

+ x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1

LANs

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Example 5
Itisobviousthatwecannotchoosex(binary10)orx2+x
(binary110)asthepolynomialbecausebotharedivisible
byx.However,wecanchoosex+1(binary11)because
itisnotdivisiblebyx,butisdivisiblebyx+1.Wecan
alsochoosex2+1(binary101)becauseitisdivisibleby
x+1(binarydivision).

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Example 6
TheCRC12
x12+x11+x3+x+1
whichhasadegreeof12,willdetectallbursterrors
affectinganoddnumberofbits,willdetectallburst
errorswithalengthlessthanorequalto12,andwill
detect,99.97percentofthetime,bursterrorswitha
lengthof12ormore.

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10.12

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Checksum

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10.13

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Data unit and checksum

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Note:
The sender follows these steps:
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added using ones complement to get
the sum.
The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
The checksum is sent with the data.

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Note:
The receiver follows these steps:
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added using ones complement to get
the sum.
The sum is complemented.
If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise,
rejected.
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Example 7
Supposethefollowingblockof16bitsistobesentusinga
checksumof8bits.
1010100100111001
Thenumbersareaddedusingonescomplement
10101001
00111001

Sum 11100010
Checksum00011101
Thepatternsentis101010010011100100011101
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Example 8
NowsupposethereceiverreceivesthepatternsentinExample7
andthereisnoerror.
101010010011100100011101
Whenthereceiveraddsthethreesections,itwillgetall1s,which,
aftercomplementing,isall0sandshowsthatthereisnoerror.
10101001
00111001
00011101
Sum

11111111

Complement

00000000meansthatthepatternisOK.

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Example 9
Nowsupposethereisabursterroroflength5thataffects4bits.
101011111111100100011101
Whenthereceiveraddsthethreesections,itgets
10101111
11111001
00011101
PartialSum111000101
Carry
Sum

1
11000110

Complement00111001thepatterniscorrupted.
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10.3 Correction

Retransmission
Forward Error Correction
Burst Error Correction
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Table 10.2 Data and redundancy bits

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Number of
data bits
m

Number of
redundancy bits
r

Total
bits
m+r

10

11

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10.14

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Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code

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10.15

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Redundancy bits calculation

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10.16

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Example of redundancy bit calculation

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10.17

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Error detection using Hamming code

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10.18

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Burst error correction example

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