GENERAL

CHEMISTRY PART-II
5. Chemistry of Elements
Dr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.
Program Studi S-2 Sains
PPS - UNDIKSHA

A. Hydrogen
Hydrogen named after the Greek
word for "water_forming"
In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered
hydrogen.
It is most abundant element in the
Universe. Hydrogen is found
everywhere and in most compounds.
Hydrogen is rarely found as a gas on
Earth and it catches fire and it can be
explosive.
Hydrogen has three isot0pes:
hydrogen H1 (symbol: H) natural
abundance 99.985%
deuterium H2 (symbol: D) natural
abundance 0.015%
3

Running your car on water.

Its all about Hydrogen gas
extracted from water for free and
fed into your cars engine as fuel to
replace gasoline.
Does it work? Absolutely not! facts
that any Physics Professor will
confirm.
This technology is not new. It has
been around since the 1700s and has
been taught in Chemistry classes for
200 years.
You will learn the complete history of
hydrogen beginning with its
discovery, early uses, and well-known
disasters that it played a part in.
But most importantly, you will learn
everything about this new Hydrogen
Revival and the reasons why it cant
work.

Compounds of Hydrogen
1.Water (H2O)

2. Hydride
Ionic hydrides

CaH2

Covalent hydrides

Interstitial hydrides

Ni-H batteries

B. Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are the elements located in Group IA of the
periodic table. The alkali metals are lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium, cesium, and francium.
1. Shiny 'metallic' appearance
2. Solids at room temperature (except
mercury)
3. High melting points
4. High densities
5. Large atomic radii
6. Low ionization energies
7. Low electronegativities
8. Usually, high deformation
9. Malleable
10.Ductile
11.Thermal conductors
12.Electrical conductors

Sodium

C. Earth Alkali Metals

General views of earth alkali

metals:
Two electrons in the outer shell
Low electron affinities
Low electronegativities
Readily form divalent cations.

D. Aluminium
Aluminium is an abundant element in the earth's
crust
(7.5% by mass), but it is not found free in nature.
Aluminium is a silvery-white metal with many
desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic (as
the metal), nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is
easily formed, machined, and cast. Aluminium is
soft and lacks strength, but alloys with small
amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and other elements have very useful
properties.
The main mineral of alumnium is
bauxite(Al2O3.2H2O) contaminated with silica
(SiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and titanium (IV) oxide
(TiO2). The Bayer process is used to refine
aluminium from bauxite:
SiO2(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3 (aq) +
H2O(l)
A2O3(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) 2NaAlO2 (aq) +
H2O(l)

E. Carbon

Compounds of carbon
(inorganic)
Carbon combines with metals to form carbides, there
are ionic (CaC2, Be2C, Al4C3); covalent (SiC); and
interstitial (WC).
Cyanide compounds contain the anion group of :CN:Cyanide ions are extremely toxic. HCN has the aroma
of bitter almonds, it is toxic, volatile, and very weak
acid.
Cyanide ions are used to extract gold and silver.
4Au(s) + 8CN-(aq) +O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
4[Au(CN)2]2-(aq)
+
4OH-(aq)

F. Nitrogen and
Phosphorus

Nitrogen is about 78% of air by volume. The most important mineral

sources of nitrogen are saltpeter (KNO3) and Chili saltpeter (NaNO3).
Nitrogen is essential element of life.
Molecular nitrogen is obtained by fractional distillation. In laboratory, it
comes from thermal decomposition of ammonium nitrate: NH4NO2
2H2O + N2.
Ammonia (NH3) is a
colorless gas with an
irritating odor. It is
essential used in
industries. It is prepared
through Haber process:
N2 + 2H2 NH3
Other compounds: N2H4
(hidrazine); oxides: N2O,
NO, NO2; and oxoacids:
HNO2 and HNO3.

Phosphorus occurs most commonly in nature as phosphate rocks:

calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2, and fluoroapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F.
To get element:
2Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 10C(s) + 6SiO2(s) 6CaSiO3(s) + 10CO(g) +
P4(s) (white)
White phosphorus is converted to red phosphorus when heated at 300C
in air. Red phosphorus has a polymeric structure and is more stable and
less volatile.
nP4 (white) (P4)n (red)
Compounds of phosphorus:
hydride: phosphine, PH3
halides: PX3 and PX5
oxides: P4O6, P4O10
oxoacid: phosphorus acid,
H3PO3
phosphoric acid, H3PO4
hypophosphorus acid,
H3PO2
triphosphoric acid,
H5P3O10

G. Oxygen and
Sulfur

Oxygen is by far the most abundant

element in Earths crust, constituting
about 46% of its mass.
Oxygen is a building block of all
biomolecules and the essential oxidant in
the metabolic breakdown of food
molecules.

Oxygen has two allotropes: O2 (oxygen)

and O3 (ozone). O2 molecule is
paramagnetic.
O3 is rather toxic, light-blue gas, and
pungent odor. O3 is used to purify
drinking water,2- to deodorize air 2-and
Oxygen forms three types of oxides:
oxides
(O and
), peroxides
(O2
), and
sewage
gases,
to
bleach
waxes,
oils,
superoxides (O2-)
and textiles.
Oxides: basic (Na2O, MgO); amphoteric (Al2O3); and acidic (SiO2, P4O10,
SO3, Cl2O7).
Peroxides: H2O2 is colorless, syrupy liquid, disproportionation, miscible with
water in all proportion.

Although sulfur is not a very abundance element, it

is readily available because it occurs commonly in
nature in elemental form. It occurs also in gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) and pyrite (FeS2) as well as in
natural gases as H2S and SO2.
One of several allotropic forms of sulfur is S8, a
puckered ring structure.
Compounds:
hydride: H2S
oxides: SO2, SO3
oxoacids: H2SO3, H2SO4
salts: Na2S, FeS, FeS2, CaS, etc.
0xoanionic salts: CaSO4
others: CS2, SF6

H. Halogen
Properties
The electronegativity of halogens decrease down
the group. Fluorine is very reactive and is the most
electronegative element.
Physical property. The halogens boiling points
which increase down group seven. This is because
the atoms get bigger and so the Van der Waals
forces get smaller.
Chemical property. The oxidising power of the

Halides
A halide is simply the ion of a halogen. Their ability to reduce
increases down the group from F to I.
The reactions of NaX (where X is a halogen) with sulphuric acid,
H2SO4.
NaX

Observations

Products

Fluorine

Steamy fumes

HF

Chlorine

Steamy fumes

HCl

Bromine

Steamy fume
Colourless gas
Brown fumes

HBr
SO2
Br2

Iodine

Steamy fumes
Colourless gas
Yellow solid
Rotten eggs smell
A black solid a
purple fumes

HI
SO2
S
H2S
I2

The ionic equation for this

reaction is as follows (using Br
as the halide).
Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) AgCl(s)

Salt Formation
Halogens will react with metals to form salts.
For example, if chlorine gas is passed over a
heated iron wire, a brown solid is formed upon
cooling.
iron + chlorine -> iron (III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) -> 2FeCl2 (s)
The most reactive halogen is fluorine, and
they become less reactive as you go down.
Due to this, a more reactive halogen will
displace a less reactive one. For example,
when chlorine gas is bubbled though
potassium bromide solution.

Chlorine and Chlorides

Chlorine has a very interesting reaction with water, it is a
reversible reaction and also shows something called
disproportionation [dis-pro-por-shon-ay-shon].

Disproportionation means a reaction where one species (in

this case chlorine) is simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
Another reaction we are going to look at is chlorine with cold,
dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH). This causes the following
reaction to take place.
Cl2 + 2OH- Cl- + ClO- + H2O
This reaction is very important because it is used
commercially to produce bleach!

I. Transition
Metals

General Properties

The properties and similarities in transition metals is down to

their electron configurations. The 3d sub-shell is closer to the
nucleus, but higher in energy than the 4s; meaning that 4s fills
up first (giving K and Ca). Therefore we define transition metals
as those that have an incomplete d sub-level: in the element
form or one of its ions.
There are exceptions that arise as a result of this definition.

The various common properties of transition metals are are:

coloured ions, variable oxidation states, and catalytic activity.

Variable Oxidation States

Because the 4s and 3d energy levels are so similar, the transition
elements can loose differing numbers of electrons and have a
similar stability. This means they have variable oxidation states.
Vandium has 4 oxidation states (+2, +3, +4 and +5). These can
be seen as 4 distinct colours when zinc is added to acidified
ammonium vanadate (V).

Similarly, chromium ions show different colours according to the

oxidation state, when Cr2O72- is reduced in solution by zinc.

Oxygen from the air can act as an oxidising

agent on many compounds such as Co(OH)2 to
Co(OH)3.
The ions can be protected from this by
acidification. If ammonia solution is added to
cobalt (II) salt, the precipitate Co(OH)2 is
formed. If shaken it will oxidise to Co(OH)3,
which is brown.
Substances can also be oxidised in alkaline
solution. For example, adding excess of NaOH
to chromium (III) salt gives the chromate (III)
ion. Now when this is treated with hydrogen
peroxide it is readily oxidised to chromate (VI)
ions.

Redox Titrations
Titrations are important in analysing solutions. For example, testing the amount of
iron in an iron tablet. This can be done by reacting Fe2+ with either MnO4- manganate (VII) or Cr2O7- - dichromate (VI).
First, the tablet will be dissolved in acid. Dilute sulphuric acid is used because it is
strong, isn't an oxidising agent (as concentrated sulphuric acid is) and will not be
oxidised.

The manganate ion is added from the burette in the form of potassium
manganate which is dark purple, but the reaction product is colourless so when
the end-point is reached the solution will be purple. The following reaction occurs.
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O
Fe2+ Fe3+ + eOverall:
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
If potassium dichromate is used instead, an indicator must be used,
this is commonly sodium diphenylaminesulphonate. The overall
reaction for this is.
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Example:

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY PART-II
6. Nuclear Chemistry
Dr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.
Program Studi S-2 Sains
PPS - UNDIKSHA

INTRODUCTION
Nuclear chemistry is the study
of reactions involving changes
in atomic nuclei. It began with
the discover of natural
radioactivity by Antoine
Becquerel and continued by
Pierre and Marie Curie.
Atomic bombs, hydrogen
bombs, neutron bombs, even
the peaceful use of nuclear
energy has become
controversial, in part because
of safety concerns about
nuclear power plants and also

The Nature of Nuclear Reactions

Except 1H1 all nuclei contain two kinds of fundamental particle:
proton and neutron. Some nuclei are unstable; they emit particles
and/or electromagnetic radiation spontaneously; this phenomenon is
called radioactivity.
Another type of radioactivity, known as nuclear transmutation, is
resulted from the bombardment of nuclei by neutrons, protons, or
other nuclei. Radiactive decay and nuclear transmutation are nuclear
Chemical reactions
Nuclear reactions
reactions.
1. Atoms are rearranged by the
1. Elements (or isotopes of the
breaking and forming of
same elements) are converted
chemical bonds.
from one to another.
2. Only electrons in atomic or
2. Protons, electrons, neutrons, and
molecular orbitals are involved
other elementary particles may
in breaking and forming bonds.
be involved.
3. Reactions are accompanied by
3. Reactions are accompanied by
absorption or release of relative
absorption or release of
small energy.
tremendous amount of energy.
4. Rates of reactions are influenced 4. Rates of reactions are not
by temperature, pressure,
affected by temperature,
concentration, and catalyst.
pressure, concentration, and

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

Fision and Fusion

Fission
When atoms are bombarded with neutrons, their
nuclei splits into 2 parts which are roughly equal in
size.
Nuclear fission in the process whereby a nucleus,
with a high mass number, splits into 2 nuclei which
have roughly equal smaller mass numbers.
During nuclear fission, neutrons are
released.

Nuclear Fission
There are 2 types of fission that exist:
1. Spontaneous Fission
2. Induced Fission

Spontaneous Fission
Some radioisotopes contain nuclei which are
highly unstable and decay spontaneously by
splitting into 2 smaller nuclei.
Such spontaneous decays are accompanied by
the release of neutrons.

Induced Fission
Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding
atoms with neutrons.
The nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts.
Induced fission decays are also accompanied by
the release of neutrons.

The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a
uranium-235 nucleus.

1
0n

235
92 U

The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a
uranium-235 nucleus.

1
0n

235
92 U

The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a
uranium-235 nucleus.

1
0n

235
92 U

The Fission Process

The neutron strikes the nucleus which then
captures the neutron.

1
0n

235
92 U

The Fission Process

The nucleus changes from being uranium-235 to

uranium-236 as it has captured a neutron.

236
92 U

The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.
It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.
It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.
It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases

neutrons.
1
0n
141
56Ba
1
0n
92
36 Kr
1
0n

The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases

neutrons.
1
0n
141
56Ba

1
0n

92
36 Kr
1
0n

The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases

neutrons.
1
0n
141
56Ba

1
0n

92
36 Kr
1
0n

The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
1
neutrons.
0n
141
56Ba

1
0n

92
36 Kr
1

Nuclear Fission Examples

235

141

92

235

138

96

U
n
+
92
0
U
n
+
92
0

Ba
Kr
n
3
+
+
56
36
0
Cs
Rb
n
2
+
+
55
37
0

Energy from Fission

Both the fission fragments and neutrons travel at
high speed.
The kinetic energy of the products of fission are far
greater than that of the bombarding neutron and
target atom.
EK before fission << EK after fission

Energy is being released as a result of the fission reaction.

Energy from Fission

235

U
n
+
92
0
Element

96

Atomic Mass (kg)

3.9014 x 10-25

55Cs

2.2895 x 10-25

37Rb

1.5925 x 10-25

0n

1.6750 x 10-27

138

Cs
Rb
n
2
+
+
55
37
0

92U

235

96

138

Energy from Fission

Calculate the total mass before and after fission takes place.
The total mass before fission (LHS of the equation):
3.9014 x 10-25 + 1.6750 x 10-27 = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg

The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):

2.2895 x 10-25 + 1.5925 x 10-25 + (2 x 1.6750 x 10-27) = 3.9155 x 10-25 kg

Energy from Fission

The total mass before fission =3.91815 x 10-25 kg
The total mass after fission

=3.91550 x 10-25 kg

total mass before fission > total mass after fission

Energy from Fission

mass difference, m = total mass before fission total mass after fission

m = 3.91815 x 10-25 3.91550 x 10-25

m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg

This reduction in mass results in the release of energy.

Energy Released
The energy released can be calculated using the equation:
E = mc2

c2

Where:
E = energy released (J)
m = mass difference (kg)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 ms-1)

Energy from Fission

Calculate the energy released from the following
fission reaction:

235

U + 0n

92

m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg
c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E=E

138

96

Cs + 37Rb+ 20n

55

E = mc2
E = 2.65 x 10-28 x (3 x 108)2
E = 2.385 x 10-11 J

Energy from Fission

The energy released from this fission reaction does
not seem a lot.
This is because it is produced from the fission of
a single nucleus.
Large amounts of energy are released when a
large number of nuclei undergo fission reactions.

Energy from Fission

Each uranium-235 atom has a mass of 3.9014 x
10-25 kg.
The total number of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235
can be found as follows:
No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 1/3.9014 x 10 25

No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 2.56 x 10 24 atoms

Energy from Fission

If one uranium-235 atom undergoes a fission
reaction and releases 2.385 x 10-11 J of energy,
then the amount of energy released by 1 kg of
uranium-235 can be calculated as follows:
total energy = energy per fission x number of
atoms
total energy = 2.385 x 10-11 x 2.56 x 1024
total energy = 6.1056 x 1013 J

Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low mass numbers
combine to produce a single nucleus with a higher
mass number.

2
1

H + 1H

He+0n+Energy

The Fusion Process

2
1H

3
1H

The Fusion Process

2
1H

3
1H

The Fusion Process

2
1H

3
1H

The Fusion Process

2
1H
3
1H

The Fusion Process

The Fusion Process

The Fusion Process

The Fusion Process

The Fusion Process

1
0n
4
2 He

EN
E

RG
Y

The Fusion Process

1
0n
4
2 He

EN
E

RG
Y

The Fusion Process

1
0n

4
2 He

EN
E

RG
Y

The Fusion Process

1
0n

4
2 He

EN
E

RG
Y

Energy from Fusion

2
1

H + 1H

He+0n +Energy

Element

Atomic Mass (kg)

1H

3.345 x 10-27

1H

5.008 x 10-27

2He

6.647 x 10-27

0n

1.6750 x 10-27

Energy from Fusion

Calculate the following:
The mass difference.
The energy released per fusion.

Energy from Fusion

2

H
H
+
1
1

Energy
He
n
+
+
2
0

The total mass before fusion (LHS of the equation):

3.345 x 10-27 + 5.008 x 10-27 = 8.353 x 10-27 kg
The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):
6.647 x 10-27 + 1.675 x 10-27 = 8.322 x 10-27 kg

Energy from Fusion

m = total mass before fission total mass after fission
m = 8.353 x 10-27 8.322 x 10-27
m = 3.1 x 10-29 kg

Energy from Fusion

2

H
H
+
1
1
m = 3.1 x 10-29 kg
c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E=E

Energy
He
n
+
+
2
0
E = mc2
E = 3.1 x 10-29 x (3 x 108)2
E = 2.79 x 10-12 J

The energy released per fusion is 2.79 x 10 -12 J.

Radioactivity
The word radioactivity was

first used by Marie Curie in

1898.
She used the word
radioactivity to describe the
property of certain
substances to give off
invisible radiations that
could be detected by films.

Radioactivity
Scientists quickly learned

that there were three

different kinds of radiation
given off by radioactive
materials.
Alpha rays
Beta rays
Gamma rays

The scientists called them

rays because the radiation

carried energy and moved in
straight lines, like light rays.

Radioactivity
We now know that

radioactivity comes from

the nucleus of the atom.
If the nucleus has too
many neutrons, or is
unstable for any other
reason, the atom
undergoes radioactive
decay.
The word decay means to
"break down."

Radioactivity
In alpha decay, the nucleus ejects two protons and

two neutrons.
Beta decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus
splits into a proton and an electron.
Gamma decay is not truly a decay reaction in the
sense that the nucleus becomes something different.

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay gives off energy.
The energy comes from the conversion of

mass into energy.

Because the speed of light (c) is such a large
number, a tiny bit of mass generates a huge
amount of energy.
Radioactivity occurs because everything in
nature tends to move toward lower energy.

Radioactivity
If you started with one kilogram of C-14 it would

decay into 0.999988 kg of N-14.

The difference of 0.012 grams is converted directly
into energy via Einsteins formula E = mc2.

Radioactivity
Systems move from higher energy to lower energy

over time.
A ball rolls downhill to the lowest point or a hot cup of
coffee cools down.
A radioactive nucleus decays because the neutrons
and protons have lower overall energy in the final
nucleus than they had in the original nucleus.

Radioactivity
The radioactive decay of C-14 does not happen

immediately because it takes a small input of energy

to start the transformation from C-14 to N-14.
The energy needed to start the reaction is called an
energy barrier.
The lower the energy barrier, the more likely the atom
is to decay quickly.

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay depends on chance.
It is possible to predict the average behavior

of lots of atoms, but impossible to predict

when any one atom will decay.
One very useful prediction we can make is the
half-life.
The half-life is the time it takes for one half of
the atoms in any sample to decay.

Half-life
The half-life of carbon-

14 is about 5,700
years.
If you start out with
200 grams of C-14,
5,700 years later only
100 grams will still be
C-14.
The rest will have
decayed to nitrogen14.

Half-life
Most radioactive

materials decay in a
series of reactions.
Radon gas comes from
the decay of uranium
in the soil.
Uranium (U-238)
decays to radon-222
(Ra-222).

Applications of
radioactivity
Many satellites use radioactive decay from

isotopes with long half-lives for power because

energy can be produced for a long time
without refueling.
Isotopes with a short half-life give off lots of
energy in a short time and are useful in
medical imaging, but can be extremely
dangerous.
The isotope carbon-14 is used by
archeologists to determine age.

Carbon dating

Living things contain a large amount of carbon.

When a living organism dies it stops exchanging

carbon with the environment.

As the fixed amount of carbon-14 decays, the ratio
of C-14 to C-12 slowly gets smaller with age.

Calculating with isotopes

A sample of 1,000

grams of the isotope C14 is created.

The half-life of C-14 is
5,700 years.
How much C-14 remains
after 28,500 years?

Radiation
Key Question:
What are some types
and sources of
radiation?

Radiation
The word radiation means the flow of energy

through space.
There are many forms of radiation.
Light, radio waves, microwaves, and x-rays
are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Many people mistakenly think of radiation as
only associated with nuclear reactions.

Radiation
The intensity of radiation measures how much

power flows per unit of area.

When radiation comes from a single point, the
intensity decreases inversely as the square of the
distance.
This is called the inverse square law and it applies
to all forms of radiation.

Intensity
Intensity (W/m )
2

I=P
A

Power (watt)

Area (m2)

Intensity = 7.96 W/m2 Intensity = 1.99 W/m2

Harmful radiation
Radiation becomes

harmful when it has

enough energy to
remove electrons from
atoms.
The process of
removing an electron
from an atom is called
ionization.
Visible light is an
example of nonionizing
radiation.

Harmful radiation
Ionizing radiation absorbed by people is

measured in a unit called the rem.

The total amount of radiation received by a
person is called a dose, just like a dose of
medicine.
It is wise to limit your exposure to ionizing
radiation whenever possible.
Use shielding materials, such as lead, and do
your work efficiently and quickly.
Distance also reduces exposure.

Sources of radiation
Ionizing radiation is a natural part of our

environment.
There are two chief sources of radiation you will
probably be exposed to:
background radiation.
radiation from medical procedures such as x-rays.

Background radiation results in an average

dose of 0.3 rem per year for someone living in

the United States.

Background radiation
Background radiation

levels can vary widely

from place to place.
Cosmic rays are high

energy particles that

come from outside our
solar system.
Radioactive material
from nuclear weapons is
called fallout.
Radioactive radon gas is
present in basements
and the atmosphere.

X-ray machines
X-rays are photons, like

visible light photons

only with much more
energy.
Diagnostic X-rays are
used to produce images
of bones and teeth on
X-ray film.
X-ray film turns black
when exposed to Xrays.

X-ray machines
Therapeutic x-rays are

used to destroy diseased

tissue, such as cancer
cells.
Low levels of x-rays do
not destroy cells, but high
levels do.
The beams are made to
overlap at the place
where the doctor wants to
destroy diseased cells.

CAT scan
The advent of powerful

computers has made it

possible to produce threedimensional images of bones
and other structures within
the body.
To produce a CAT scan,
computerized axial
tomography, a computer
controls an x-ray machine as
it takes pictures of the body

CAT scan
People who work with

radiation use radiation

detectors to tell when
radiation is present and to
measure its intensity.
The Geiger counter is a type
of radiation detector invented
to measure X-rays and other
ionizing radiation, since they
are invisible to the naked eye.

Antimatter, neutrinos and

others particles
The matter you meet in the world ordinarily

contains protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Cosmic rays contain particles called muons
and pions.
Thousands of particles called neutrinos from
the sun pass through you every second and
you cannot feel them.

Antimatter, neutrinos and

others particles
Every particle of matter has an antimatter

twin.
Antimatter is the same as regular matter

except properties like electric charge are

reversed.
An antiproton is just like a normal proton

except it has a negative charge.

An antielectron (also called a positron) is like

an ordinary electron except that it has

positive charge.

Neutrinos
When beta decay was first discovered,

physicists were greatly disturbed to find that

the energy of the resulting proton and
electron was less than the energy of the
disintegrating neutron.
The famous Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli
proposed that there must be a very light,
previously undetected neutral particle that
was carrying away the missing energy.
We now know the missing particle is a type of
neutrino.

Neutrinos
Despite the difficulty of

detection, several
carefully constructed
neutrino experiments
have detected
neutrinos coming from
nuclear reactions in the
sun.

Application: Nuclear
Power