CHAPTER 1 (cont)

Part 2.1 Noise

Objectives
To differentiate the types of noise
To calculate the thermal noise
generated by a resistor
To calculate the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) and noise figure for an
amplifier

Lecture overview
Types of noise
Thermal noise
Signal-to-noise ration (SNR) and
noise figure

Introduction
Noise can be defined as
undesired random variations that interface with the
desired signal and inhibit communication.
Where does noise originate in a communication
system?
Channel @ transmission medium
Devices @ Equipments

Contd...
Noise Effect
One of the main limiting factor in
obtaining high performance of a
communication system.
Decrease the quality of the receiving
signal.

Block Diagram of Communication

System With the Existence of Noise

Contd...
Noise, interference and distortion
Noise
Refers to random and unpredictable
electrical signals produced by natural
process.
Superimposed on information bearing
signal, the message partially corrupted or
totally erased.
Can be reduced by filtering but cant
totally eliminated.

Contd...
Interference
A contamination by extraneous signals
from human sources (e.g. from other
Tx, power lines, machineries)
Often occurred in radio system whose
Rx antenna intercept several signals
at the same time.

Contd...
Distortion
The signal perturbation caused by
imperfect response of the system to the
desired signal.
Disappear when the signal is turned-off.
Can be corrected by the equalizers.

Noise Remedies?
REDUCE BANDWIDTH

INCREASE TRANSMITTERS
POWER

LOW NOISE AMPLIFIERS

Types of NOISE
N O IS E
IN T E R N A L

EXTER N AL

T H E R M A L N O IS E
- t r a n s is t o r
- d io d e
- r e s is t o r s

M A N M A D E N O IS E
- a u t o m o b ile e n g in e
- e le c t r ic m o t o r
-c o m p u te r

S H O T N O IS E
- e le c t r o n ic s y s t e m
- e q u ip m e n t

S P A C E N O IS E
- s o la r n o is e
- s k y n o is e

F L IC K E R N O IS E
-tu b e s

A T M O S P H E R IC N O IS E
- N o is e b la n k in g
- lig h t in g

Contd...
Noise generated outside the electronic
equipment used.
Source can be terrestrial or
extraterrestrial (E.g. the earth, the moon,
the sun, the galaxies).
Do not effect the entire communication
frequency spectrum but affect certain
frequencies at certain times and locations.
Types: Man made noise, space noise,
atmospheric noise.

Contd...
a. Man made noise
o Produced by mankind
o Source : Spark-producing mechanisms
o Impulsive in nature & contains a wide
range of frequencies propagated
through space.
o Sometimes called industrial noise
(metropolitan & industrial area).

Contd...
b. Space noise
o The sun is a powerful source of
radiation.
o Stars also radiate noise called
cosmic, stellar or sky noise.
o Important at higher frequencies
(VHF and above) because
atmospheric noise dominates at
lower frequencies.

Contd...
c. Atmospheric noise
o The principle source is lightning
( a static electricity discharge.
o Can propagate for a long distances
through space.
o The lightning energy relatively low
frequency (up to several MHz).

Contd...

- Electronic noise generated by the

passive and active components
incorporated in the designs of
communications equipment.
- Types : Shot noise, flicker noise,
thermal noise.

Contd...
Shot Noise
o Caused by a random arrival of carriers
(holes and electrons) at the output of an
electronic devices.
o Randomly varying & superimposed onto
any signal present.
o Sometimes called transistor noise.

Contd...
Flicker noise
o Excess noise that related to dc
current flow through imperfect
conductors.
o The real nature of flicker noise not
yet fully understood.

Thermal Noise
This type of noise arise due to the
random motion of free electrons in the
conducting medium such as resistor.
Each free electron inside a resistor is
in motion due to its thermal energy.
The path of electron motion is random
and zig-zag due to collision with the
lattice structure.

Contd...
The net effect of the motion of all
electrons constitutes an electric
current flowing through the resistor.
It causes the rate of arrival of electron
at either end of a resistor to vary
randomly and thereby varies the
resistors potential difference. That is
the direction of current flow is random
and has a zero mean value.

Contd...
Resistors and the resistance within
all electronic devices are constantly
producing noise voltage Vn(t).
Since it is dependent on
temperature, it is also referred to as
thermal noise.

 Thermal noise also known as Johnson noise or white noise.

In 1928, J.B. Johnson founded that Noise Power is direct
proportionally with temperature and bandwidth.

P =kTB
n

Where
Pn = noise power (Watt)
k = Boltzman constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = conductor temperature (K) [Add 273 to C]
Noise spectrum density is constant for all value of
B =12Bandwidth of system (Hz)

frequency to 10 Hz.

 From the study of circuit theory, the

relationship between source resistor and
matched load under maximum power transfer
is when Rn = RL .
The total of noise source power is Pn.

Known as Rn = RL = R,
Therefore voltage at RL is

Vn
RL
VL
Vn
Rn RL
2
Vn

2
VL
2

Power at VL , PL

R
R
and Pn PL kTB
therefore
2

Vn
kTB
4R
2
Vn 4kTBR
Vn

4kTBR

Vn

4R

Example 1

A receiver has a BW of 10 kHz

with the 4.14 x 10-17 W noise
power. A resistor that matches the
receiver input impedance is
connected across its antenna
terminals. Calculate the resistors
temperature in Celsius.

Example 2
A 1 k resistor is connected across
1 k antenna input of a television
receiver. The BW of the receiver is 5
MHz and the resistor at the room
temperature 293 K. Calculate the
noise power and noise voltage
applied to the receiver input.

How to Quantifying the Noise?

The presence of noise degrades the
performance of analog and digital
communication.
The extent to which noise affects the
performance of communication systems is
measured by the output signal to noise power
ratio or SNR (for analog communication
systems) and probability of error (for digital
communication systems).

Contd...
The signal quality at the input of the receiver is
characterized by the input signal to noise ratio.
Because of the noise sources within the receiver,
which is introduced during the filtering and
amplification processes, the SNR at the output of
the receiver will be lower than at the input of the
receiver.
This degradation in the signal quality is
characterized in terms of noise equivalent
bandwidth, N0, effective noise temperature, Te. and
noise figure,F

Noise Calculation

SNR is ratio of signal power, S to noise power, N.

SNR 10 log

Noise Factor, F

Noise Figure, NF

S
dB
N

Si N i
So N o

NF 10 log F
10 log

Si N i
(dB )
So N o

Noise Calculation In Amplifier

o Two types of model
- Noise amplifier Model.
- Noiseless amplifier model.

Analysis of Noise Amplifier Model

S 0 GSi and
Na
N 0 GN i N a G ( N i
) G ( N i N ai )
G

Analysis of Noiseless Amplifier Model

S 0 GSi and
N 0 G ( N i N ai )

SNR0 <<< SNRi

SNRi
F

SNR0
As known as

Noise Factor,

Si

Ni
N i N ai
N ai

1
GSi
Ni
Ni
G ( N i N ai )
N i kTi B and N ai kTe B

N ai
kTe B
Te
F 1
1
1
Ni
kTi B
Ti

Noise Temperature,

Te ( F 1)Ti

Analysis of Cascade Stages

Consider three two ports in cascade

antenna
Si
Ni
Ti

F1, Te1
G1
Nai1
pre-amplifier
Stage 1

S1
N1
Nai2

F2, G2, Te2

demodulator
Stage 2

S2
N2

F3, Te3
G3

Nai3
amplifier
Stage 3

So
No

Stage 1

Signal Power, S1 G1S i

Noise Power, N1 G1 ( N i N ai1 )
G1 (kTi B kTe1 B )
G1kB(Ti Te1 )

Stage 2
Signal Power, S 2 G2 S1 G2G1S i
Noise Power, N 2 G2 ( N1 N ai 2 )
G2 N1 G2 N ai 2
G2G1kB(Ti Te1 ) G2 kTe 2 B

Stage 3
Signal Power, S 0 G3 S 2 G3G2G1Si
Noise Power, N 0 G3 ( N 2 N ai 3 )
G3 N 2 G3 N ai 3
G3G2G1kB(Ti Te1 ) G3G2 kTe 2 B G3kTe3 B

Noise Factor, F
Ftotal

SNRi

SNRO

Si
SO

Ni
NO
Si

G3G2G1S i

kTi B

G3G2G1kB (Ti Te1 ) G3G2 kBTe 2 G3 kBTe 3

G3G2G1kB(Ti Te1 ) G3G2 kBTe 2 G3 kBTe 3

G3G2G1kBTi
Ti Te1 Te 2
Te 3

Ti
G1Ti G2G1Ti

Known as the overall noise factor, FTOTAL

FTOTAL
FTOTAL

Ti
T
T
Te 3
e1 e 2
Ti
Ti
G1Ti
G1G2Ti

Te1
Te 2
Te 3
1

Ti
G1Ti
G1G2Ti

Te
If F 1
Ti

and Ti T0 290 K

therefore Te ( F 1)T0
FTOTAL

( F2 1) ( F3 1)
F1

G1
G1G2

And we can calculate noise temperature, Te

FTOTAL

( F2 1) ( F3 1)
F1

G1
G1G2

TeTOTAL
Te1
1
1

T0
T0

Te 2
Te 3
1
1 1
1
T0
T0

G1
G1G2

TeTOTAL Te1 Te 2
Te 3

T0
T0 G1T0 G1G2T0
TeTOTAL

Te 2
Te 3
Te1

G1 G1G2

It can also be shown that the overall noise figure, F

and the effective noise temperature, Te of n networks
in cascade is given by:

( Fn 1)
( F2 1) ( F3 1)
F F1

...
G1
G1G2
G1G2 ...Gn 1

Te 2
Te 3
Ten
Te Te1

...
G1 G1G2
G1G2 ...Gn 1

Transmission Loss, Attenuator

Every transmission medium will produce power
loss.
Pout < Pin.
Power loss or attenuated is given by the
following equation:
Pin
1
L

Pout
G
LdB

Pin
10 log10
Pout

GdB

Contd...
We also can calculate by using this
following equation;

LdB
Where
= transmission medium length
= attenuated constant

Example 3
Determine:
a. Noise Figure for an equivalent
temperature of 75 K (use 290 K
for the reference temperature).
b. Equivalent noise temperature
for a Noise Figure of 6 dB.

Example 4
For three cascaded amplifier stages,
each with noise figure of 3dB and
power gain of 10 dB, determine the
total noise figure.

Example 5
An amplifier consists of three identical
stages in tandem. Each stage having
equal input and output impedances. For
each stages, the power gain is 8 dB when
correctly matched and the noise figure is
6dB. Calculate the overall power gain and
noise figure of the amplifier.

At the end of this

chapter, you shoud be
able
To differentiate the types of noise
To calculate the thermal noise
generated by a resistor
To calculate the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) and noise figure for an
amplifier