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Chapter 2

Orthogonal Representation,
Fourier Series and Power Spectra
Orthogonal Series Representation of Signals and Noise

Orthogonal Functions
Orthogonal Series

Fourier Series.

Complex Fourier Series


Quadrature Fourier Series
Polar Fourier Series
Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms
Huseyin Bilgekul
Eeng360 Communication Systems I
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Eastern Mediterranean University

Orthogonal Functions
Definition: Functions n(t) and m(t) are said to be
Orthogonal with respect to each other the interval a < t < b if
they satisfy the condition,

where

nm is called the Kronecker delta function.


If the constants Kn are all equal to 1 then the n(t) are
said to be orthonormal functions.

Example 2.11 Orthogonal Complex Exponential Functions

Orthogonal Series
Theorem: Assume w(t) represents a waveform over the interval a < t
<b. Then w(t) can be represented over the interval (a, b) by the series
where, the coefficients an are given by following where n is an integer
value :

w(t ) ann (t )
n

1
an
Kn

w(t ) (t )dt
*
n

If w(t) can be represented without any errors in this way


we call the set of functions {n} as a Complete Set
Examples for complete sets:
Harmonic Sinusoidal Sets {Sin(nw0t)}
Complex Expoents {ejnwt}
Bessel Functions
Legendare polynominals

Orthogonal Series
Proof of theorem: Assume that the set {n} is sufficient to represent
the waveform w(t) over the interval a < t <b by the series

w(t ) an n (t )
n

We operate the integral operator

on both sides t o

get,

Now, since we can find the coefficients an writing w(t) in series


form is possible. Thus theorem is proved.

Application of Orthogonal Series


It is also possible to generate w(t) from the j(t) functions and the coefficients aj.
In this case, w(t) is approximated by using a reasonable number of the j(t) functions.

w(t) is realized by adding


weighted versions of
orthogonal functions

Ex. Square Waves Using Sine Waves.

n =1
n =3
n =5

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Fourier Series
Complex Fourier Series

The frequency f0 = 1/T0 is said to be the fundamental frequency and the frequency
nf0 is said to be the nth harmonic frequency, when n>1.

Some Properties of Complex Fourier Series

Some Properties of Complex Fourier Series

Quadrature Fourier Series


The Quadrature Form of the Fourier series representing any
physical waveform w(t) over the interval a < t < a+T0 is,
n

n 0

n 0

w(t ) an cos(n0t ) bn sin( n0t )


where the orthogonal functions are cos(n0t) and sin(n0t).
Using

we can find the Fourier coefficients as:

Quadrature Fourier Series


Since these sinusoidal orthogonal functions are periodic, this series is periodic

with the fundamental period T0.


The Complex Fourier Series, and the Quadrature Fourier Series are equivalent

representations.
This can be shown by expressing the complex number c n as below

For all integer values of n


and

Thus we obtain the identities


and

Polar Fourier Series


The POLAR F Form is

where w(t) is real and

The above two equations may be inverted, and we obtain

Polar Fourier Series Coefficients

Line Spetra for Periodic Waveforms


Theorem: If a waveform is periodic with period T0, the spectrum of the
waveform w(t) is

where f0 = 1/T0 and cn are the phasor Fourier coefficients of the waveform

Proof:
Taking the Fourier transform of both sides, we obtain

Here the integral representation for a delta function was used.

Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms


Theorem: If w(t) is a periodic function with period T0 and is represented by

Where,
then the Fourier coefficients are given by:

The Fourier Series Coefficients can also be calculated from the


periodic sample values of the Fourier Transform.

Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms


w(t )

h(t nT )
Line
Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
o

cn f o H (nf o )

h(t)

W( f )

The Fourier Series Coefficients


of the periodic signal can be
calculated from the Fourier
Transform of the similar
nonperiodic signal.

c ( f nf

n
n

h(t ) H ( f )

= f o H ( nf o ) ( f nf o )
n

The sample values for the


Fourier transform gives the
Fourier series coefficients.

Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms


Single Pulse
Continous Spectrum

Periodic Pulse Train Line Spectrum

Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave

Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave


Now evaluate the coefficients from the Fourier Transform
T Sa( fT)

Now compare the spectrum for this periodic rectangular wave (solid lines) with the
spectrum for the rectangular pulse.
Note that the spectrum for the periodic wave contains spectral lines, whereas the
spectrum for the nonperiodic pulse is continuous.
Note that the envelope of the spectrum for both cases is the same |(sin x)/x| shape,
where x=Tf.
Consequently, the Null Bandwidth (for the envelope) is 1/T for both cases, where T is
the pulse width.
This is a basic property of digital signaling with rectangular pulse shapes. The null
bandwidth is the reciprocal of the pulse width.

Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave


Single Pulse
Continous Spectrum

Periodic Pulse Train Line Spectrum

Normalized Power
Theorem: For a periodic waveform w(t), the normalized power
is given by:

where the {cn} are the complex Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

Proof: For periodic w(t), the Fourier series representation is valid over all time
and may be substituted into Eq.(2-12) to evaluate the normalized power:

Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms


Theorem: For a periodic waveform, the power spectral density (PSD) is given by

where T0 = 1/f0 is the period of the waveform and


{cn} are the corresponding Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

PSD is the FT of the


Autocorrelation
function

Power Spectral Density for a Square Wave


The PSD for the periodic square wave will be found.
Because the waveform is periodic, FS coefficients can be used to evaluate the PSD.
Consequently this problem becomes one of evaluating the FS coefficients.

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