The Art of Rhetoric

Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the study of effective
speaking and writing and the
art of persuasion.
We study rhetoric in order to:
1)perceive how language works
orally and in writing
2)become proficient in applying
the resources of language in
our own speaking and writing.

Persuasive Appeals
Persuasion, according to Aristotle, is
brought about through three kinds of
persuasive appeal:
Logos ~ appeal to reason
Pathos ~ appeal to emotion
Ethos ~ appeal to one's own character
Although they can be analyzed
separately, these three appeals work
together in combination toward
persuasive ends.
Aristotle calls these "artistic" or
"intrinsic" proofsthose that could be
found by means of the art of rhetoric
in contrast to "nonartistic" or
"extrinsic" proofs such as witnesses or
contracts that are simply used by the
speaker, not found through rhetoric.

LOGOS = REASON
Aristotle wished that all communication could be
transacted only through this appeal, but given
the weaknesses of humanity, he laments, we
must resort to the use of the other two
appeals. The Greek term logos is laden with
many more meanings than simply "reason,"
and is in fact the term used for "oration."
Sample Rhetorical Analysis:
When Descartes said, "I think; therefore, I am,"
his statement reflected in its pure concision
and simple logical arrangement the kind of
thought and being he believed to be most real.
He did not claim, as Pascal would later do, that
our being has as much to do with feeling as it
does thinking. Descartes here equates pure
rationality and pure being, persuading us of
the accuracy of this equation by the simplicity
of his statement. There is no room for the
clouds of emotion in this straightforward
formula; it makes a purely logical appeal.

Figures of Logos
In Logos, speech is used to make an
argument more reasonable.
Sorites ~ chain of claims and reasons
which build upon one another.
Syllogismus~ the use of a remark or an
image which calls upon the audience to
draw an obvious conclusion.
Aetiologia ~ figure of reasoning by which
one attributes a cause for a statement or
claim made.
Ratiocinatio ~ reasoning (typically with
oneself) by asking questions.
Anthypophora ~ one asks and then
immediately answers one's own questions.
Apophasis~ the rejection of several
reasons why a thing should or should not
be done and affirming a single one,
considered most valid.

Figures of Logos, cont

Contrarium ~ juxtaposing two opposing
statements in such a way as to prove the
one from the other.
Expeditio ~ after enumerating all
possibilities by which something could have
occurred, the speaker eliminates all but one.
Proecthesis ~ when, in conclusion, a
justifying reason is provided.
Prosapodosis ~ providing a reason for each
division of a statement with the reasons
usually following the statement in parallel
fashion.
Paromologia ~ admitting a weaker point in
order to make a stronger one.
Dirimens Copulatio ~ a figure by which one
balances one statement with a contrary,
qualifying statement
Commoratio ~dwelling on or returning to
one's strongest argument.

PATHOS = EMOTION
We see the close relations between assessment of
pathos and of a given audience. Pathos is the
category by which we veiw the psychological
aspects of rhetoric.
Sample Rhetorical Analysis:
Antony, addressing the crowd after Caesar's
murder in Shakespeare's play, manages to stir
them up to anger against the conspirators by
drawing upon their pity. He does this by calling
their attention to each of Caesar's dagger
wounds, accomplishing this pathetic appeal
through vivid descriptions combined with
allusions to the betrayal of friendship made by
Brutus, who made "the most unkindest cut of
all":
Look, in this place ran Cassius' dagger through;
See what a rent the envious Casca made;
Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb'd,
And as he pluck'd his cursed steel away,
Mark how the blood of Caesar followed it,
As rushing out of doors to be resolv'd
If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no;
For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel.
Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar lov'd him!
This was the most unkindest cut of all;
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar 3.2.174-183

Figures of Pathos
In Pathos, speech is employed to evoke an
emotional response.
Adhortatio~ comandment, promise, or
exhortation intended to move one's consent
or desires.
Aganactesis ~ an exclamation proceeding
from deep indignation.
Apagoresis ~ a statement designed to inhibit
someone from doing something.
Aposiopesis ~ breaking off suddenly in the
middle of speaking, usually to portray being
overcome with emotion.
Apostrophe ~ turning one's speech from one
audience to another.
Cataplexis ~ threatening or prophecying
payback for ill doing.
Conduplicatio ~ the repetition of a word or
words in adjacent phrases or clauses, either
to amplify the thought or to express emotion.
Deesis ~ the vehement expression of desire
put in terms of "for someone's sake" or "for
God's sake."

 Descriptio ~ vivid description,

especially of the consequences of an
act, that stirs up its hearers.
Diacope ~ repetition of a word with
one or more between, usually to
express deep feeling.
Ecphonesis ~ An emotional
exclamation.
Energia ~ the vigor with which one
expresses oneself.
Epanorthosis ~ mending a first
thought by altering it to make it
stronger or more vehement.
Epimone ~ persistent repetition of the
same plea in much the same words.

 Epiplexis ~ asking questions in order to

chide, to express grief, or to inveigh.
Excitatio ~ excites an audience, especially
out of a stupor or boredom.
Exuscitatio ~ stirring others by one's own
vehement feeling.
Inter se Pugnantia ~ using direct address to
reprove someone before an audience openly.
Mempsis ~ expressing complaint and
seeking help.
Ominatio ~ a prophecy of evil; "ominous" in
tone.
Paenismus ~ expressing joy for blessings
obtained or an evil avoided.
Perclusio ~ a threat against someone, or
something.
Synonymia ~ the use of several synonyms
together to amplify or explain a given
subject or term; adds force.

ETHOS = CHARACTER
Ethos refers especially to how character is
established by means of the speech or
discourse. Aristotle claimed that one needs
to appear both knowledgeable about one's
subject and benevolent. Cicero said that in
classical oratory the initial portion of a
speech was the place to establish one's
credibility with the audience.
Sample Rhetorical Analysis:
In Cicero's speech defending the poet Archias,
he begins his speech by referring to his own
expertise in oratory, for which he was
famous in Rome. While lacking modesty, this
tactic still established his ethos because the
audience was forced to acknowledge that
Cicero's public service gave him a certain
right to speak, and his success in oratory
gave him special authority to speak about
another author. In effect, his entire speech is
an attempt to increase the respectability of
the ethos of literature, largely accomplished
by tying it to Cicero's own, already
established, public character.

Figures of Ethos
In Ethos, speech is used to
promote the authority and
credibility of the speaker.
Anamnesis ~ calling to memory
past matters.
Litotes ~ deliberate
understatement, especially
when expressing a thought by
denying its opposite.
Serves as a means of
downplaying one's
accomplishments in order to
gain the audience's favor.