Introduction

Electrical machines are used to convert energy from one

form to another form.

Magnetic materials are used for the construction of

electrical machines. Therefore it is important to understand

the magnetic materials and their application (i.e. magnetic
circuits and air gap) in electrical machines.

The main advantages of using magnetic materials in the

electrical machines are, to obtain high flux density which

gives large output and efficiency, reduced size of the
machine.

Current and Magnetism

Current
The rate of change of charge is known as

current, and denoted by Ior i and the

expression is I=dq/dt. The current flows in a
closed circuit in the presence of electromotive
force.
Magnet and Magnetism
Magnet is a material that can attract or repel
any other iron material. The magnet contains
the north and south poles. Magnetism is the
amount of force that is created by electric
current or the amount of motion of electrons in
the atom.

Magnetic Field
Consider a current is

flowing in a current
carrying conductor
from A to B as shown in
figure. Due to this
current, a magnetic
field is produced
around the conductor,
whose direction is
given by Right Hand
Thumb Rule.

Magnetic Flux
The amount of

magnetic lines passing

through an area near
the magnet is called
the magnetic flux. The
magnetic flux can also
be defined as the
product of magnetic
flux density and the
perpendicular area
that flux penetrates, it
is denoted by,
= BA Wb

Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic Flux Density is magnetic flux per

unit area and expressed as,

B= /A Wb/m2
The magneto-motive force is the product of
current and the number of turns of the coil.
Mathematically,
= Ni AmpereTurns

Magnetic Field
Intensity
The magneto-motive force per unit length is
known as magnetic field intensity and is
expressed as,
H= Ni/l AmpereTurns/m
Magnetic Field Intensity represents the
effort exerted by the current to establish a
Magnetic Field

Practice Problems:
1. The dimensions of a bar magnet are 15cm x

3cm x 2cm. Its magnetic flux density is 0.02

Wb/m2. Determine the total flux of the magnet.
2. The area of a bar magnet is 14cm2. If the

total flux of the magnet is 0.05Wb, determine

the magnetic flux density.

Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic Permeability, , represents the
relative ease of establishing a magnetic field
in a given material.
Relative Permeability is the ratio of absolute
permeability of any material () to the
permeability of the free space (o).
Where o = 4 x 10-7

Expression for Relative Permeability:

r = /o
Relative permeability of silicon steel used in

modern machines ranges from 2000 to 6000.

Relationship of B & H
Magnetic flux density (B) developed in a
magnetic field is directly proportional to the
amount of applied magnetic field intensity (H).
B H
B = *H
( is absolute permeability of the material).
B = r*o*H

Practice Problems:
1. The mean circumference of an iron ring is 0.6m, uniform

cross sectional area is 0.005 square meter and relative

permeability is 3000. The iron ring is wound by 200 turns
and carries a current of 5A. Determine the (a) magnetic
field intensity, (b) magnetic flux density and (c) total flux.

2. The mean circumference of a silicon steel ring is 800mm,

uniform cross sectional area is 600mm 2 and relative

permeability is 5000. The steel ring is wound by 400 turns
and carries a current of 8A. Determine the (a) magnetic
field intensity, (b) magnetic flux density and (c) total flux.

Reluctance & Permeance

Reluctance
It is property of a magnetic material to oppose the

development of magnetic flux.

It can also be defined as the ratio of
magnetomotive force to the flux through any cross
section of a magnetic circuit.
Permeance
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux to the
magnetomotive force through any cross section of
the magnetic circuit.
Alternatively, permeance is the reciprocal of
reluctance.

Practice Problems:
1. A current of 4A is flowing through a wire

which consists of 9 turns. The flux around the

wire is 0.06wb. Determine the (a)
magnetomotive force and (b) reluctance of the
circuit.
2. The magnetomotive force of a coil is 54At

when it carries a current of 6A. Determine the

number of turns of the coil and the reluctance of
the circuit if the flux is 0.07 Wb.

Magnetic Flux Density

for a Long Straight
Wire

H = Ni/2r
B = Ni/2r

Practice Problems:
1. A 15A current is flowing through a wire

conductor. The conductor is surrounded by air

and is wound by 10 turns. Find the magnetic
flux density at a distance of 1.5cm from the
conductor.
2. A long wire of 15 turns carries a current of
20A. The conductor is surrounded by air. Find
the magnetic field intensity and flux density at
a distance of 0.2m from the wire.

Magnetic Flux Density

in a Toroidal Coil

H = Ni/2(R-r)
B = Ni/2(R-r)
= Nir2/2(R-r)

Practice Problems:
1. An iron (relative permeability is 4000) torodial coil

is wound by 200 turns and having the inner diameter

of 7cm and the outer diameter of 10cm. The crosssectional area is 0.005m2. If the current 5A flows
through the coil, find the (a) magnetic field strength,
(b) flux density, and (c) flux.
2. An iron (relative permeability is 5000) torodial coil

is wound by 200 turns and having the mean length of

500mm. The cross-sectional area is 0.0008m 2. If the
current of 2A flows through the coil, find the (a)
magnetic field strength, (b) flux density, and (c) flux.

Magnetic
Circuits
A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by
the magnetic flux. The magnetic circuit is
divided into two types.
Series Magnetic Circuit:
The Magnetic circuit in which, same flux flows
through it.
Parallel Magnetic Circuit:
The Magnetic circuit in which flux divides into
two or more parts.

Series Magnetic
Circuits

Series Magnetic
Circuits
Magnetic circuit and their equivalent circuit
are shown in figure. Where, l1 and l2 are mean
length of two materials, A1 and A2 are the
cross-sectional area of two materials and 1
and 2 are the absolute permeability of two
materials. Current flowing through the left
section of the core having N turns is I.

Series Magnetic
Circuits
Ni= H l + H l
1 1

2 2

= R
Where R= R1+R2
= B1A1 = B2A2

Practice
Problems:
1. The dimension of the magnetic circuit is
shown in the following figure. The relative
permeability of the magnetic material is 750.
Calculate the field intensity.
2. Determine the magnetic flux of the
magnetic circuit as shown in the figure. The
dimensions of the length, width and height are
0.3m, 0.02m and 0.3m respectively. The
relative permeability of a magnetic material is
1100.

Parallel Magnetic Circuit:

Total flux is divided into two or more sections

(see figure). The magnetomotive force is

connected to the left side and induces the flux
and this flux is divided into 1 and 2 for the
mid and right section of the core. The
magnetic field intensity for left, right and
middle are H, H1, and H2 and length are l,l1 and
l2.

Parallel Magnetic
The magnetic potential drop around the
Circuit:
equivalent circuit is,
- Hl = H1l1= H2l2
Total flux is, = 1 + 2
As we know, Hl = R
Using above equations, magnomotive force

can be written in form of,

- R= R11= R22
= R+ R11= R+R22

Parallel Magnetic
Circuit:

Practice Problems:
Following problems are for a magnetic circuit with two

windows. Its mean window width is 22cm and window height

is 10cm.
1. The cross sectional area of the above mentioned magnetic

structure is 5cm2. The left limb is wound by 350 turns and the
flux in the right limb is 4Wb. Determine the current. Assume
the relative permeability is 300.
2. The cross sectional area of the magnetic structure is 6cm 2.

The left limb is wound by N turns and the flux in the right
limb is 4mWb. Determine N if the 3A current flows in the coil.
Assume the relative permeability is 550.

Comparison b/w Magnetic

and Electric Circuits
1. The flux moves in magnetic circuits and

current moves in electric circuit.

2. The flux is defined as magnetomotive force
per reluctance and current is defined as
voltage per resistance.
3. The magnetic flux density is defined as the
flux per area. The electric current density is
defined as the current per area.

Comparison b/w
4. The magnetomotive force is equal to the
Magnetic
and
Electric
product of flux and reluctance. The voltage is
equal to the product of current and circuit
Circuits
resistance.
5. The magnetic circuit reluctance is defined

as R= l/A. The electrical circuit

resistance is defined as R= (l/A).
6. The magnetic field intensity is defined as
H=/l and the electric field intensity is
defined as E= V/d

Air Gap in Magnetic Circuits

The gap between two parts of magnetic bar is

called Air Gap. This gap is filled by non magnetic

material. In machines, rotor moves freely inside
the stator through a small air gap. Generally,
fluxes cross directly from one bar to other bar at
the middle of the air gap, whereas at the edges of
an air gap flux bends outward and thereby
increases the effective area of the gap which
reduces the magnetic flux density. This reduction
process is known as fringing as shown in figure.
The fringing will be greater for longer air gap.

Calculation of Magnetic
Circuits with Air Gap
Consider the mean length, permeability and
cross sectional area of the core are lc, c and
Ac and for air gap lag, ag and Aag respectively. In
the composite circuit, the core and the air gap
are connected in series. As a result same flux
will flow through the core and air gap and
equivalent circuit can be considered as series
circuit as shown in following figure.

Air Gap in Magnetic

Circuits

Air Gap in Magnetic

Circuits
The magnetic flux densities for the core and
air gap are,
Bc = c /Ac and Bag = ag /Aag,
Total magneto-motive force,
t = c+ ag = Hclc+ Haglag
t = Rt where, Rt = Rc+ Rag

Air Gap in Magnetic

Circuits
If the permeability is
very high then the
reluctance of the
core is very small
and it can be
neglected. Therefore,
total magnetomotive force is,
ag = Rag

Practice Problems:
1. The mean length cross sectional area and the air

gap length of a iron ring are 35cm, 15cm 2 and 0.6 mm

respectively. The ring wound by 400 turns and carries
a current of 2A, which produces 2.5mWb flux.
Determine the reluctance and the relative
permeability of the iron ring.
2. The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure is

2cm2 and is wound by 200 turns. The core is made up

of iron and the relative permeability of the core is
4000. Determine the current flowing through the coil
if the total flux of the circuit is 2.5mWb.

Practice Problems:
3. The mean length cross sectional area and the air

gap length of a iron ring are 55cm, 25cm 2 and 0.8 mm

respectively. The ring is wound by 1200 turns and
carries a current of 2A, which produces 6.5mWb flux.
Determine the reluctance and the relative
permeability of the iron ring.
4. The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure is

2.5cm2 and is wound by 1000 turns. The core is made

up of iron and the relative permeability of the core is
4000. Determine the current flowing through the coil
if the total flux of the circuit is 3.5mWb.

Electromagnetic Force on a
Conductor
When a current carrying conductor is placed

in a magnetic field it experiences a force,

known as electromagnetic force or Lorentz
force.
F = BiI
Where, B is the magnetic flux density, l is
the length of the conductor in meter and i is
the current flowing through the conductor.
The force is greater if the length of the
conductor increases.

Practice Problems:
1. The conductor carries a current of 150A.

The length of the conductor is 2m and is

placed in a magnetic field whose magnetic
flux density is 0.35T. Determine the force.
2. The magnetic force of a 3m conductor is
200N.The magnetic flux density of the
conductor is 0.5T. Determine the magnitude of
the current

Forces B/W Two Parallel

Conductors
If two conductors are carrying currents in

same direction, the fluxes are in opposite

direction in common region (see figure 1). The
total reduction in flux shows the force of
attraction.
However, if the conductors are carrying
current in opposite direction the net flux is
increased, which indicates the force of
repulsion (see figure 2).

Where d distance b/w two conductors,

Conductors carrying currents I1 and I2

respectively, the flux density at the

conductor 1 due to conductor 2 is
B = oI1/2d
If the length of the conductor is l then force
either attraction or repulsion is,
F = BlI2
Finally,
F = oI1I2/2d

Magnetic Material and B-H

Curve
Ferromagnetic materials: Materials whose

permeability thousands times greater than

free space i.e. iron, nickel, steel and cobalt.
Diamagnetic materials: Materials whose
permeability less than free space i.e.
copper, gold and silver.
Paramagnetic materials: Materials have
permeability slightly greater than free space
i.e. magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium.

Hysteresis Loop
It is a loop that is obtained by variation of

magnetic flux density with magnetic field

intensity. Consider an un-magnetized core to
obtain this loop. The relationship of magnetic field
intensity,
H = Ni/l
For zero value of current, h= 0 and the curve will
start from the origin of axes. By increasing the
value of current the value of field intensity is also
increased accordingly.
H = Ni/l

BH Graph

The new value of magnetic field intensity at

point a is Ha (see figure). Again, increase the

value of current until the magnetic field intensity
reaches at the saturation point and at this point
the value of magnetic field intensity is H b.
Further increase in current will increase
magnetic field intensity but the magnitude of
magnetic flux density will be same. It means
magnetic material has reached its saturation
region.

In the reverse way, if the magnetic field

intensity decreases slowly, the magnetic flux

density will also decrease. This decreasing
value of magnetic field intensity and magnetic
flux density are greater than the previous
values and the curve will move by another
path. There will be some magnetic flux
density remaining if the magnetic flux
intensity is reduced to zero.

It means that the core sustained some flux

density (OC). This remaining part of the

magnetic flux density is known as retentivity
of the material. Further increase in magnetic
field intensity in the reverse direction leads to
the magnetic flux density becoming zero at
point D. This value OD is necessary to
demagnetize the magnetic material.

This amount of magnetic field intensity is

known as coercive force. The path will

continue up to the point E if we increase
the magnetic field intensity. The complete
hysteresis curve will be obtained if we
continue the other steps.

Core Losses
There are two types of losses in the magnetic

field known as hysteresis and eddy current

losses, and combination of these two losses is
known as core losses.

Hysteresis Loss
In general, the hysteresis loss can be

expressed as,
Ph= KhVcvol Bn f
Where kh, depends on the properties of the

magnetic material and volume of the core.

The value of the constant n varies b/w 1.5 to
2.5.

Eddy Current Loss

The core of the machine normally offers

conductive path for the time varying flux. This

time varying flux induces a voltage in the
body of the core. As a result of this voltage, a
small magnitude of current will flow through
the core. This current is known as eddy
current. The power loss due to this current is
known as eddy current loss.

The eddy current loss can be expressed as,

Pe= KeVcvol t2B2 f2
Heret is the thickness of the lamination.
Vcvol is core volume