Integrated

functions
of CNS
Nurhadi Ibrahim
Department of Medical Physiology
Faculty of Medicine
Universitas Indonesia
Jakarta

The Role of Human

Brain in Behavior
Control
Behavior
The responses to the changing
environment performed by the
physical and the complex cognitive
action

The Behavior Control

Process by Integrated Reflex
Activity

- The basic unit of integrated reflex

activity is the reflex arc.
- The reflex arc consist of sense organ, an
afferent neuron, one or more synapses
in central integration or sympathetic
ganglion, an efferent neuron and an
effector
- The activity in the reflex arc is modified
by multiple inputs converging on the
efferent neurons

T he Role of Human Brain in

Behavior Control
s

Cell to Cell
Communication
Cell-to-Cell communication
is absolutely essential for
multicellular organisms in order
to the activity of reflex system in
controling their behavior

The Synapses
The point at which one
neuron communicates
with another cell is
called a synapse

The Synapses
The synaptic transmission
is fundamental to many of
the processes, such as
perception, voluntary
movement and learning &
memory

The Synapses
The strength of both form of
synaptic transmission can
be enhanced or diminished
by cellular activity and this
is called by
synaptic plasticity

The Synapses
The synaptic plasticity
is crucial to memory
and other higher brain
functions

Synapse
Are specialized junctions through which
cells of the nervous system signal to one
another and to non-neuronal cells such as
muscles or glands
Electrochemical communication between
neurons takes place at these junctions.
Some cells in the nervous system have as
many as two hundred thousand synaptic
connections.

Synapse
s

Synapse
The synapse consists of three elements:
the presynaptic membrane which is
formed by the terminal button of an axon,
the postsynaptic membrane which is
composed of a segment of dendrite or cell
body, and
the space between these two structures
which is called the synaptic cleft.

Synapse
presynaptic membrane; contains synaptic
vesicles that contain chemicals called
neurotransmitters, e.g. acetylcholine,
norepinephrine. dopamine.
synaptic cleft; space between neurons or
between a neurons and effectors.
postsynaptic membrane; contains receptor
sites for neurotransmitters and other protein

The Type of
Synapses
Two basic form of
synaptic transmission:
- electrical
- chemical

The Type of
Synapses
Electrical
Synapse

Chemical
Synapse

presynaps

postsynaps

The Type of
Synapses

Property

Electrical
Synapse

Chemical
Synapse

Distance
between
Membranes

3.5 nm

20-40 nm

Cytoplasmic
continuity?

Yes

No

Structural
Unit(s)

Gapjunction
channel

Many (vesicles,
docking/fusion proteins, and
postsynaptic receptors)

Transmitter

Ionic
current

Chemical transmitter

Transmission
Delay

No

Yes
(usually 1-5msec)

Transmission
Direction

Can be bidirectional

Unidirectional

Chemical Synapses

Chemical
Synapse

Bear, 2001

Chemical
Synapse
These vesicle store
neurotransmitter.
Dense accumulation of protein
adjacent to and within the
membranes on either side of the
synaptic cleft called the membrane
differentiation.
On the presynaptic side protein
jutting into the cytoplasm of the
termimnal along the intracellular

Chemical synapse

mitochondria

Active Zone

Chemical
Synapse
The pyramid and membrane
associated with them are the
actual site of neurotransmitter
release called the active zones.
The postsynaptic density that
are the protein thickly
accumulated in just under the
postsynaptic membrane, contain
the neurotransmitter receptors.

2+

Ca

Sherwood, 2001

Receptors
The receptors convert the
intracellular chemical signal into
an intracellular signal
The postsynaptic response is
various depending on the type of
protein receptor that is activated
by the neurotransmitter.

Synaptic
Integration

- A central neuron receives both

excitatory and inhibitory signals
- The effect of synaptic potential is
determined by the type of ion
channels gated by the transmitter
(neurotransmitter) in the
postsynaptic cell

Synaptic
Integration
- Excitatory synaptic action is mediated
by glutamate-gated channels
- Inhibitory synaptic action is usually
mediated by GABA- and glycine-gated
channels
- Synaptic receptors for glutamate,
GABA and glycine are transmembrane
protein

Synaptic
Integration

- Excitatory and inhibitory signals

are integrated into a single
response by the cell
- Synapses on a single central
neuron are grouped according to
function

Summation of Graded
Potentials: EPSPs

Interaction of
excitatory &
inhibitory potentials

EPSPs - IPSPs

Modulation of Synaptic
Transmission
- Synaptic receptors have two
major function:
1. the recognition of specific
transmitters (neurotransmitters)
2. the activation of effectors

Modulation of Synaptic
Transmission
- According to how the receptor and
effector functions are coupled, the
synaptic receptors can be divided:
1. Ionotropic receptor, gates ion channels
directly
2. Metabotropic receptor, gates ion
channels indirectly; G protein-coupled
receptor and receptor tyrosine kinase.

Postsynaptic Channel
Receptors

Neurotransmitter
Removal

Modulation of Synaptic
Transmission
G protein-coupled receptor requires
the participation of several distinct
protein for activating the effector that
typically is an enzyme that produces
a diffusible second messenger and
than trigger a biochemical cascade

Modulation of Synaptic
Transmission
- Second messenger pathways
interact with one another
- Second messenger can endow
synaptic transmission with longlasting consequences

Types of Synapse
Different types of synapse may be
distinguished by which part of the
neuron is postsynaptic to the axon
terminal
Axodendritic postsynaptic
membrane is on a dendrite
Axosomatic postsynaptic membrane
is on the cell body
Axoaxonic postsynaptic membrane
is on another axon
Dendrodendritic dendrites synapses
with one another

Size and
Shape of
CNS
synapses

 Types based on the appearance

of their postsynaptic membrane
differentiations under EM
Grays type I (asymmetrical
synapses) membrane
differentiation on the postsynaptic
side is thicker than that on
presynaptic side, usually excitatory,
synaptic vesicles round & large (3060 nm), synaptic cleft 30 nm wide
Grays type II (symmetrical
synapses) membrane
differentiations are of similar
thickness, usually inhibitory,
synaptic vesicles oval, flattened, or
pleiomorphic in shape, synaptic

Integration of Signals

Neural Inhibitor Connection

Synaptic Modulation

Signal Transduction
Is a process in which the
activated receptor alters
intracellular molecules to
create a response
In biological systems, it
converts the message of
extracellular signal molecules
into intracellular messages
that trigger a response

Signal Transduction
The binding of the receptor
with extracellular chemical
bring about the intracellular
response:
1. by opening or closing specific
channel
in membrane cell to regulate the
movement of ions
2. by tranferring the signal to
intracellular
chemical messenger to trigger a

Signal Transduction

Signal Transduction

Signal Transduction

Basic Pattern of a
Biological Signal
Transduction Pathway

An extracellular signal molecule binds

to and activates a protein or
glycoprotein membrane receptor
The receptor is linked to effector
proteins that either
Activate protein kinases, or
Activate amplifier enzymes that
create intracellular signal
molecules known as second
messengers.

Basic Pattern of a
Biological Signal
Transduction Pathway
Second messenger molecules
Change enzyme activity,
especially of protein kinases
Increase intracellular calcium,
or
Alter the open state if ion
channels
Calcium binding to proteins or
phosphorylation of protein changes
their function, creating a cellular

Basic Pattern of a
Biological Signal
Transduction Pathway

The proteins modified by calcium

binding and phosphorylation control
one or more of the following:
- Metabolic enzymes
- Motor proteins for muscle contraction
and cytoskeletal movement
- Proteins that regulate gene activity
and protein synthesis, and
- Membrane transport and receptor
proteins

Neurotransmitter and
Neuromodulators
in
the Nervous System

 NT/neuromodulator systems
Noradrenegic
norepinephrine
Serotonergeic serotonin
Dopaminergic dopamine
Cholinergetic
actetylcholine

The Diffuse Modulatory

Systems in the Brain
Function

Acetylcholine
Location Myorenal junction;
preganglionic autonomic
ending, postganglionic
sympathetic sweat gland, and
muscle vasodilator endings;
many parts of brain; endings
of some amacrine cells in
retina.

Amine
Dopamine, location SIF cells in
sympathetic ganglia; striatum, median
eminence, and other parts of
hypothalamus; limbic system; parts of
neocortex; endings of some interneurons
in retina.
Norepinephrine, location Most
postganglionic sympathetic endings;
cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, brain
stem, cerebellum, spinal cord
Epinephrine, location Hypothalamus,
thalamus, periaqueductal gray, spinal
cord
Serotonin, locationHypothalamus,
Limbic system, cerebellum, spinal cord;

Excitatory Amino Acids

Glutamate
Location Cerebral cortex, brain
stem
Aspartate
Location Visual cortex

Inhibitory Amino Acids

Glycine
Location Neurons mediating direct
inhibition in spinal cord, brain
stem, forebrain; retina.
Gamma-aminobutyrate (GABA)
Location Cerebellum; cerebral
cortex; neurons mediating
presynaptic inhibition; retina

Polypeptides
Substance P other tachykinins,
location Endings of primary
afferent neurons mediating
nociception; many parts of brain;
retina.
Vasopressin, location Posterior
pituitary; medulla; spinal cord.
Oxytocin, location Posterior
pituitary; medulla; spinal cord.

Purines
Adenosine
Location Neocortex, olfactory
cortex, hippocampus,
cerebellum
ATP
Location Autonomic ganglia,
habernula.

Gases
NO, CO
Location CNS
Play as retrogate
neurotransmitter

Lipids
Anandamide
Location Hippocampus,
basal ganglia, cerebellum

Acetylcholine
Receptor: Nicotinic, Net channel effects:
Na+ , other small ions
Receptor: M1 , Second messenger: IP3,
DAG, Net Channel effects: Ca2+
Receptor: M2 (cardiac), Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP, Net channel
effects: K+
Receptor: M3, Second messenger: Cyclic
AMP
Receptor: M4 (glandular), Second
messenger: IP3, DAG
Receptor: M5, Second messenger: IP3,

Dopamine
Receptor: D1, D5 , Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP
Receptor: D2, Second messenger:
Cyclic AMP, Net channel
effects: K+, Ca2+
Receptor: D3, D4 , Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP

Norepinephrine
Receptor: 1A, 1B, 1D, Second
messenger: IP3, DAG, Net channel
Effects: K+
Receptor: 2A, 2B, 2C, Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP, Net channel
effects: K+, Ca2+
Receptor: 1, Second messenger: Cyclic
AMP
Receptor: 2, Second messenger: Cyclic
AMP

Adenosine
Receptor: A1, Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP
Receptor: A2, Second
messenger: Cyclic AMP

Glutamate
Receptor: Metabotropic2
Receptor: Ionotropic
Receptor: AMPA, Kainate, Net
channel effects: Na+
Receptor: NMDA, Net channel effects:
Na+, Ca2+

GABA
Receptor: GABAA, Net channel
effects: Cl Receptor: GABAB, Second
messenger: IP3, DAG, Net
channel effects: K+, Ca2+

Synaptic Plasticity
Change in structure or biochemistry
that alter their effect on
postsynaptic neurons
LTP: long-term potentiation
increas the potential of postsynaptic
neurons
LDP: long-term depression
decrease the potential of postsynaptic
neurons

Synaptic Plasticity

CO ?

Synaptic Plasticity

CO ?

Summary
Behavior is the responses to the changing
environment performed by the physical and
the complex cognitive action
Cell-to-Cell communication is absolutely
essential for multicellular organisms in
order to the activity of reflex system in
controlling their behavior

Thanks for Your Attention