Chapter 4

Motivating
Self and Others

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Chapter Outline

What Is Motivation?
Needs Theories of Motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
Responses to the Reward System
From Theory to Practice: The Role of Money
Motivating for Specific Organizational Goals
Motivating to Accommodate Individual Differences
Beware the Signals That Are Sent by Rewards
Caveat Emptor: Motivation Theories Are Culture-Bound
Can We Just Eliminate Rewards?

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Motivating Self and Others

Questions for Consideration
What do theories tell us about motivating
ourselves and others?
How do we motivate for specific
organizational circumstances and/or
individual differences?
Are rewards always necessary?
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an
individuals intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
Intensity: how hard a person tries
Direction: where effort is channeled
Persistence: how long effort is
maintained

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, will attempt to
avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened with punishment if they are to perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, are creative, seek
responsibility, and can exercise self-direction and
self-control.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Motivators
Intrinsic
A persons internal desire to do something,
due to such things as interest, challenge, and
personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic
Motivation that comes from outside the
person, such as pay, bonuses, and other
tangible rewards.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Needs Theories of
Motivation
Basic idea:
Individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation
Maslows hierarchy of needs
Herzbergs two factor theory
(motivation-hygiene theory)
Alderfers ERG theory
McClellands theory of needs

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs

Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and

other bodily needs

Safety
Includes security and protection from
physical and emotional harm

Social
Includes affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs
Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors such as selfrespect, autonomy, and achievement; and
external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention

Self-actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming; includes growth, achieving ones
potential, and self-fulfillment
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-1
Selfactualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Herzbergs MotivationHygiene Theory

Hygiene factors are necessary, but not
sufficient, for healthy adjustment
Extrinsic factors; context of work

Company policy and administration

Unhappy relationship with employee's
supervisor
Poor interpersonal relations with one's
peers
Poor working conditions

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Herzbergs MotivationHygiene Theory

Motivators - the sources of satisfaction
Intrinsic factors; content of work
Achievement
Recognition
Challenging, varied or interesting work
Responsibility
Advancement

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-2 Comparison of

Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting

Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view
Motivators
Satisfaction

No satisfaction
Hygiene Factors

No dissatisfaction
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Dissatisfaction

Criticisms of MotivationHygiene Theory

The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by
its methodology
The reliability of Herzbergs methodology is
questioned
Herzberg did not really produce a theory of
motivation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
The theory is inconsistent with previous
research
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence
Concerned with providing basic material
existence requirements

Relatedness
Desire for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships

Growth
Intrinsic desire for personal development
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

McClellands Theory of
Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing

the Various Needs Theories
Maslow

Alderfer

Herzberg

McClelland

Growth

Motivators

Need for Achievement

Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security

Need for Power

Relatedness
Hygiene
Factors
Existence

Physiological

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Need for Affiliation

Summary: Hierarchy of
Needs
Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be
satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.
Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is not
to be dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction,
however. Motivators lead to satisfaction.
Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the
same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the
desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they
have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a
work situation are related to whether they have a need
for achievement, affiliation, or power.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Summary: Impact of
Theory
Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising
managers. Most managers are familiar with it.
Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater
responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be
attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need
may operate at the same time.
Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy.
Tells us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer
personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not
necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are
more interested in how they do personally.

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Summary: Support and

Criticism of Theory
Maslow: Research does not generally validate the
theory. In particular, there is little support for the
hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data
were collected and interpreted.
Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a
link between satisfaction and productivity that was not
measured or demonstrated.
Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is
consistent with our knowledge of individual differences
among people. Good empirical support, particularly on
needs achievement.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Process Theories of
Motivation
Looks at the actual process of motivation
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the strength of an expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Expectancy Relationships
The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-performance relationship

The perceived probability that exerting a given

amount of effort will lead to performance.

Performance-reward relationship

The degree to which the individual believes that

performing at a particular level will lead to a
desired outcome.

Rewards-personal goals relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs
and and are attractive to the individual.

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-6 How Does

Expectancy Theory Work?
My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Effort

Performance Link

No matter how much effort

I put in, probably not possible
to memorize the text in 24 hours
E=0

Instrumentality
Performance

Rewards Link

My professor does not look

like someone who has $1 million
I=0

Valence
Rewards

Personal Goals Link

There are a lot of wonderful things

I could do with $1 million
V=1

Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-7
Steps to Increasing
Motivation, Using Expectancy
Theory
Improving Expectancy
Improve the ability of the
individual to perform
Make sure employees have skills
for the task
Provide training
Assign reasonable tasks and goals

Improving Instrumentality
Increase the individuals belief that
performance will lead to reward
Observe and recognize performance
Deliver rewards as promised
Indicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater
rewards

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Improving Valence
Make sure that the reward is
meaningful to the individual
Ask employees what rewards they
value
Give rewards that are valued

Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead
to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much
effort will need to be expended.
Specific goals increase performance
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals
Feedback leads to higher performance than does
nonfeedback.

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does

the generalized goal of do your best.
The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal
stimulus.

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Responses to the Reward

System
Equity Theory
Fair Process

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Equity Theory
Main points
Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then
respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
Equity theory recognizes that individuals
are concerned not only with the absolute
amount of rewards for their efforts, but also
with the relationship of this amount to what
others receive.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Exhibit 4-8 Equity Theory

Ratio of Output to Input
Person 1

Person 1s Perception

Inequity, underrewarded

Person 2

Person 1
Equity
Person 2

Person 1

Inequity, overrewarded

Person 2

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Responses to Inequity

Change Inputs
Change Outcomes
Adjust Perceptions of Self
Adjust Perceptions of Others
Choose a Different Referent
Leave the Field

Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition.
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.