Preparation of research tool

The instruments with which data for

the research is collected is called
research tool/instrument
It is basically of three kinds:
Observation (In Experimental research)
Opinion
(In Descriptive/Survey res.)
Information
(In Historical research)

Before Data Collection

Make decision about research method

Make decision about research tool
Make decision about population
Identify the sample size
Identify the sampling technique
Prepare research tool/instrument
Make a procedure for tool
administration

Which tool for each study?

Research

Populatio
n/
Subjects

Method

Data

Historical

Documents Document
Analysis

Descriptive

People

Questionnaire/Intervie Opinions
w/
observation

Experimental

material

Experiment

Results

Case studies/
Action res.

People/
situation

Observation/
Interview

Opinion/
Analysis

Information

Reliability and validity

Reliability
If an item obtains the same result on each
manipulation is called reliable
Validity
If an item of an instrument tests or measure
the same thing for which it is prepared is
called valid
Pilot Study
Testing instrument at a small scale is called
pilot study

Sampling techniques
Sample
A part that represents whole is called
sample

Sampling techniques
Probability
Sampling where the chance of selection equally
exists for all members of population
Non-probability
Sampling where the chance of selection does
not equally exists for all members of population

Questionnaire
Questionnaires are the most commonly
used tool for the collection of data, which
involve the following details:
Questionnaire: a written document based
on different open and close-ended
questions with different purposes, size and
appearance.
It is used for descriptive research studies to
get information from the research
participants or target population.
It is used when the straight forward
information is required and the respondents
of the study are large in number.

Questionnaire
Time and cost is involved in getting
the print and postage.
Can be group administered (if the
respondents are illiterate, the
research can ask the questions
directly from the respondents and
record their answers) and it can be
self-administered (when the
respondents themselves answer the
questions).

Questionnaires: Dos and Donts

Take consent from the author of the
questionnaire in case of using standardized
questionnaires.
A research questionnaire must be different
from the questionnaire of a marketing
product or the term paper.
Ask direct questions about the point
concerned with the research.
Directions about how to answer the
questions must be provided.
Questions should be in easy and
understandable language.
Give examples to answer the questions
where necessary.

Questionnaires: Dos and Donts

Piloting is necessary.
Pre-coded answers should be
prepared in case of close-ended
questions.
Provide the coding boxes so that the
respondents can be aware of what
they are answering.
Questionnaire must accompany the
cover letter.

Interview
Interview
is
another
popular
technique
of
collecting
data.
Currently, a variety of interview
techniques are available. However,
most commonly used are Structured,
Unstructured and semi-structured
interview

Interview: Dos and Donts

Interview should be planned according to
the topics, respondents, place, time for the
interview and questions to be asked
Interviewer must have the complete list of
the respondents, with their addresses and
other contact details.
Decide the type of the interview (face to
face, electronic, telephonic or focus group).
Decide the method for recording the
interview (field notes, tape/video recording
or any other).

Interview: Dos and Donts

Data is based on emotions,
experiences and feelings, so it is
necessary to take record of each.
Questions should be well prepared
before taking the interview.
Do not behave in threatening way.
Practice to ask the questions before
the actual interview session.

Observation
Observation is the recording of the
behaviour of the sample.
Relies on what the researcher has
witnessed not on what people say or
think about issues.
Observation can be of two types:

Participant Observation
When you as a researcher become the
part of some social set-up and people
know that they are being observed.
Non-participant or Systematic
Observation: When you do not
interfere the social set-up, or do not
disturb the natural settings of the
sample to be observed.

Participant & Non-participant

Observation
Similarities

Both rely on direct observation as an

empirical method for data collection
Both involve field work
Both are based on the perception of
the observer
Both are conducted in natural settings
Both need proper planning and
schedules

Types of Questions

Open Ended questions

Close ended questions
List Questions
category
Graded Questions
Scaled Questions
Numbering questions

Research tools for survey

research
Kind of Questions
Open-ended
(What is Education?)
Close-ended (Do you like study?)
Semi-closed
(If yes then give reason)
List (How many hours you study?)
Category (How old are you?)
Rating scale
(How do you feel in class?)
Quantitative (How many boys are in class?)
Personal (What is your income?)
Factual
(What is your qualification?)

Development of
Questionnaire

Self explanatory in its structure

Based on exact information that is
needed
Clear in its form
Probing
Inquiring not instructing
Reasonable to be answered easily
Definite in approach
Confined to some extent
Indicative to some possible situation
Limited to some extent

What to avoid while

developing Questionnaire
Some strategies that must be kept in
mind while developing questionnaire
for a research.

Language of the
Question

Each question should be:

Clear
Simple
Precise
The question should not be
Entangling
Misdirected

Example
How much time do you spend
in study?

a) Very much
b) More
c) enough
d) less
e) very less
Think over this question and
observe what the problem with
this question.

Here the question has no limit in

it. The language of the question
is vague and many things have
not been assumed. There is no
mentioning of the study as
students study a lot of things and
subjects. There is no specification
of subjects or time. Students do
study differently in different
times and different topics.

Example
Which school does your child go?
Private
Government
What is the problem with this
question?

 This is an unclear question. It is

already supposed that every person
has only one child. If somebody has
two or more than two children he will
have to leave that question. Try to
make correct question keeping in
mind all the previous instructions
delivered to you.

Example
Which program did you like best
last week?

See carefully what is the

problem with this question?

 The words in this question are

not used appropriately. What do
you mean by last weak program?
If this questionnaire shall go in
the hands of the people after
two weak then the meaning of
the last weak shall change
completely.

 Do not test the memory

It is advised that one must not test the
memory of the person to whom you are
asking question. As for example
What subjects have you studied in the
school?
If this question is asked from a
person who has long ago left the
school then he would wonder what
subjects he was taught at that time
and so you would not get the answer.

 Do not test the memory

It is advised that one must not test the
memory of the person to whom you are
asking question. As for example
What subjects have you studied in the
school?
If this question is asked from a
person who has long ago left the
school then he would wonder what
subjects he was taught at that time
and so you would not get the answer.

 Do not test knowledge

Avoid testing knowledge of other

people in the questionnaire.
Most of the people will leave the
question if they are asked to
search some information.

 Do not ask twofold question

In such type of questions two
questions are asked thinking that it is
the same information about which the
researcher is asking. As for example
Do you like to read chemistry and
physics?
How is it possible that the person may
like two at a time? It is possible that he
may like chemistry only or physics
only. So think how it must be
developed?

 Do not ask leading questions

It is the style of asking question in
which a person is brought to answer
specifically the way in which
researcher wants to get answer. It is a
very dangerous situation that can
make a research biased and invalid.
As for Example
Do you agree that teacher must be
respected in all ways and means?
Yes
No
Try to correct that question

 Presuming Questions
These are the type of questions where
researcher assumes a few things whose
understanding is settled and opinion of the
people is the same as for example
How long can man remain alive with out
taking breath?
a) One min b) Two min
c) Three min
d) more than three min
In this question it is assumed already that a
human being takes breath.
Now it is quite evident that related
perception and hypothesis based questions
are unclear and irrelevant. So always try to
establish a universal hypothesis that is
accepted universally

 Question based on conditioned

hypothesis
These questions are asked to know
the reaction of the opinion giver in a
presupposed condition. As for
example
What if you had been the Vice
chancellor of the university?
Here is an hypothesis what would
you do after becoming vice
chancellor

 Do not ask sensitive questions

Such type of questions about which
the people may hesitate in answering
them they are called sensitive
questions. As for example
What is your yearly income?
a) 60000 b) 80000
c) 100000
d) more than 100000
it is totally wrong of asking question
can you correct it yourself.

 Setting a questionnaire is like an art or

drawing a sketch. Here are few tips that
can make the questionnaire
presentable.
Script of the question must be attractive
No spelling or grammatical mistake
Questions must be separated and
prominent.
Questions must be given in proper and
parallel boxes
Questionnaire must be made attractive
and interesting

Questions language
Do not test memory and knowledge &
avoid:
Two questions
(You study art and
science?)
Directional (Do u agree we are good?)
Presuming (How much time u can live without food?)
Conditional (If you become the Vice Chancellor?)
Sensitive
(What is your age?)

Questionnaire layout
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Factual information
Close and semi-closed questions
Open question
It should be typed
Covering letter
Clear instructions
Short questionnaire
Similar questionnaires together
Leave space for coding

COVERING LETTER FOR A

QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear,
I am engaged in a piece of research at the Department of
Education, Islamia University Bahawalpur. The research
methodology involves an in-depth understanding of the
problems and issues in the Higher Education Sector, with special
reference to developing countries.
As part of the methodology I am collecting opinions and
judgments from those connected with higher education. I would
be grateful if you could complete the enclosed questionnaire.
Please feel free to expand any items which you think relevant.
Needless to say information provided will be treated in strict
confidence. Thank you for your co- operation and time in
completing the questionnaire.
Yours Sincerely,
Alina Aslam

Instructions
Please read the following instructions
before completing the questionnaire.
1. Please answer all the questions.
2. Please place a tick mark (
) in the
appropriate box against each item.
3. In suggestive questions you may tick
(
) more than one options.

Standardized Instruments
Standardized instruments are typically
developed by experts and therefore well
constructed
Each item has been analyzed and revised
before its administration.
Directions for administering, scoring and
interpreting are carefully specified
Every standardized instrument has been
verified upon:
Objectivity
Validity
Reliability

Types of research
instruments
Questionnaires (Close and Open ended)
General Information Inventories
Attitude Scales
Tests
Achievement Tests
Aptitude Tests
Personality Tests
Interviews (Structured, Semi structured &
non-structured)
Observational Techniques

Developing an Instrument
1. Questionnaire
Construction
1.Framing of questions
2.Ordering of questions
3.Designing Directions
4.Eliciting Honest Replies
Question writing
1.Related to objectives
2.Right and appropriate
3.Clear and unambiguous
4.Non suggestive
5.Knowledge seeking questions
6.Personal questions and social desirability

2. Tests
Construction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Definition
Analyses of factors, components or aspects
Writing test questions
Series of try outs
Making changes
Application on smaller sample
Item analysis
Checking reliability and Validity
Revision of test
Preparation of norms / key
Instructions

3. Interviews
Structured Interviews:
1. Scheduling
2. Preparing the environment
3. Writing and sequencing questions
4. Preparing the recording system
1. Check lists / notes
2. Recording devices
Unstructured Interviews:
1. Scheduling
2. Preparing the environment
3. Preparing the recording system

4. Observations
Scheduling
Preparing the environment
Preparing the recording system

Check lists
Rating Scales
Score cards
Recording system (video camera)

DATA COLLECTION

Using one or more than one instrument

Collecting Primary and Secondary Data
Using all available resources
Recording on time of collection
Handling data
Presentation
Descriptive
Tabular
Graphical

DATA ANALYSIS
SCORING
All instruments used should be scored accurately
and persistently
When standardized instruments used scoring
process is according to the manual
Descriptive data is to be scored by more than one
scorer
Objective and structured items can be scored
easily on a fixed scale
CODING
If planned analysis involves subgroups
comparisons
If specific statistical analysis is required
If computerized data base is required

STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
Descriptive: e.g.
Comparison of degree or strength of
responses
Range and levels

Inferential: e.g.

Mean Scores
Percentage Scores
Mean and Standard Deviations
Testing of hypotheses

USE OF COMPUTERS
Collection of data (through emails)
Preparing data base (recording &
presentation)

Scoring and Coding

Statistical Analysis (through software
like SPSS)