Transmission Overview

Sept 22-23

-S.Naga Kishore

INDEX

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Schedule
Purpose
Transmission required?
Day 1, 2 sessions
Conclusions

Day 1
Morning session:
Fundamentals of Transmission
What is E1?
Summary
Post Lunch session:
PDH/SDH
Summary

Day 2
Morning session:
Fundamentals of Fiber optics
Link Budgeting
Measurements
DWDM
Summary
Post Lunch session:
Fundamentals of Microwave
Link Budgeting
Measurements
Summary

The Purpose
This training is intended to give overview on the following:
1. Transmission principles -

Modulation, Multiplexing, Digital modulation

2. Media of Transmission -

Microwave, Fiber Optic, Satellites

3. Measurements & Test instruments of Transmission

4. Equipments of Transmission
5. Over view of PDH, SDH
6. Link budgeting

1. Is Transmission required?

Mr.Watson come here, I want you- This is the first

sentence delivered(transmitted) by A.G.Bell on Mar 10th
1876.
If there are three phones the connection could be
A

--

-- C|

|_ _

_|

If there are three thousand? I dont think it is easy!! Will you!!!

Fundamentals

Transmission made Simple:

1. Frequency (Lamda)
2. Power
3. Band width

Frequency - Band Designation, Old and New

BAND DESIGNATIONS
OLD
NEW
HF
3-30 MHz
VHF

FREQUNCY
GHz

WAVE LENGTH

0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3

3m
2m
1.5m
100cm

0.5

60cm

500-1000MHz

0.75

40cm

D
1-2 GHz

1.0
1.5

30Ccm
20cm

E
2-3 GHz
F
3-4 GHz
G
4-6 GHz
H
6-8 GHz
I
8-10 GHz
J

2.0
3

1.5cm
10cm

4
5
6

7.5cm
6cm
5cm

3.75cm

10

3cm

10-20 GHz

15

2cm

K
20-40 GHz

20
30

1.5cm
10mm

L
40-60GHz

40
50

7.5mm
6mm

60

5mm

75
100
110

4mm
3mm

140

2mm

0-250MHz
300-1000MHz
UHF

B
250-500MHz
C

300-1000MHz

L
1-2 GHz
S

X
8-12.4GHz
I
Ka
12.4GHz-18GHz
K
18-26.5GHz
Q
Ka
26.5-40 GHz
U
33-50
40-60
GHz
GHz
O
V
E
50-75
60-90
GHz
GHz
W
75-110GHz
T
110-170GHz

M
60-140GHz

POWER: Power Ratio dBm mW - W

dBM
0

Watts Vs. dBM

+40

-10 +30

-20 +20

-30 +10

-40

0
1 mW
100nW

10 mW

100 mW

1W

10W

1W

10W

10W

10W

Bandwidth
Bandwidth:
It is the width of the channel. Form Freq. X to Freq. Y
Bandwidth = X(8 Khz) ~ Y(4 Khz) = 4 Khz

1
0

2
4KHz

8KHz

n-1
12KHz

Bandwidth used = n x 4 kHz

n-2
f

PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

Multiplexing:
Channel multiplexing is essential for telephone transmission. This technique makes it possible
to reduce, very substantially, the number of links required to connect the subscribers.
Frequency Division Multiplex:
This system is based on the position of the different channels to be transmitted in terms of
frequency. Each channel uses a maximum frequency band of 4 KHz. The no. of channels
transmitted is thus calculated by dividing the multiplexed frequency band by 4 KHz.
This multiplexing mode makes it possible to obtain a high number of channels in a restricted
bandwidth but involves a number of disadvantages which tend to cause relatively rapid
degradation of the data transmitted: high sensitivity to external interference and aggregation
and amplification of distortion up to the final destination.

1
0

2
4KHz

8KHz

n-1
12KHz

Bandwidth used = n x 4 kHz

n-2
f

Time Division Multiplex (TDM)

Principle: The signal to be transmitted is fully defined by its instantaneous values sampled at
regular intervals, subject to certain conditions (Shannon Theorem). It is therefore possible to
Insert samples of n-1 other channels between two samples of a particular channel, to constitute a
Time Division Multiplex (TDM) frame of n channels.
The sampling of the original voice signal is made at 8 KHz I.e. twice the maximum frequency
In the signal being transmitted (300 Hz 3400 Hz).

1
n

Channel Repetition (Te)

Te

Frame of n channels (Te)

Te

DIGITIZATION PRINCIPLE
Component elements of a low rate link:

BIN

TNE 1

32 analog
channels

HDB 3

2.048 M

BIN

HDB 3 N

TNE 1

32 analog
channels

A low rate link multiplexes 32 telephone channels giving a digital transmission rate of 2.048
Mbps. This type of link has two basic elements, these being the PCM multiplexer (TNE1) and
the line terminal (TNL). The CCITT recommendations, designed to define standards common to
all equipment, apply at line terminal junction level.
The TNE1 provides the five basic ADC or DAC operations:
Sampling / quantification / compression / coding / time-division multiplexing
The TNL provides the following three functions:
Junction between multiplexer and telephone link / transcoding / junction and line testing.

A/D CONVERSION
Sampling
Analog signal Se, already compressed in order to limit its dynamic range, is sampled by clock Signal Sh.
Resultant signal Ss comprises a series of pulses, the amplitudes of which represent the levels
Of input signal Se when the sampling gate opens.
Se

Ss

Modulating Signal
Te

Sh

Sampling pulses

Amplitude modulated pulses

S/N

Compression:

50 dB

As the majority of levels to be transmitted are between

30dBM and 0 dBM, a compression law must be found
where the S/N ratio is satisfactorily throughout this
amplitude range. The optimum result is obtained by
reducing the size of the steps for weak signals. The
compression law therefore has a linear part, comprising a
series of small, equal steps, followed by a logarithmic
part for the other steps.

40 dB
33 dB
30 dB

20 dB
10 dB

dBM

Coding:

- 70

s A B C W X Y Z
Sign

Segment

- 60

-50

- 40

- 30

- 20

- 10

98% of cases

Position in segment

When the first signal has been quantified, the value of the steps which it occupies at the sampling times is
Transmitted in binary code form. The coding law uses 12 straight line segments, each with 16 ranges
(giving a total of 256 ranges). The ranges occupied are coded in 8-bit binary word form as mentioned above.

HDB3 Code:
(third other high density binary code)
This code must comply with the following rules:
bipolarity rule: 1 bits coded alternately +1 and 1, with RZ in the next half-period. When two
successive 1 bits have the same polarity this corresponds to violation of the bipolarity rule.
there must not be more than 3 consecutive 0 bits. To achieve this, the 4 th 0 bit is replaced by a 1
bit. To detect this substitution for deletion of the spurious 1 bit at the reception end, it is sent a violation
of the bipolarity rule (V), as shown in the following example.
Binary
Code

HDB3
Code 1

successive violations must be of opposite polarity. If all violations in a sequence of 0 bits have the same
polarity, the mean value of the signal would be non-zero. When the number of 1 bits between two
violations is not odd, a packing bit at 1 (P) is added in place of the first 0 bit.
Binary
Code

HDB3
Code 1

The HDB3 code shows slightly modified spectral distribution with respect to the binary RZ code.

W (f)

HDB 3 Code

Bipolar RZ Code

Frequency

1
T
Nevertheless, the redundancy of the HDB3 code allows detection of line transmission errors.

High rate link.

32
channels

PCM / ME
Order 1

2.048 Mpbs

4xME 1

32
channels

PCM / ME
2/8

8.448
Mbps

PCM / ME
8/34

34.368
Mbps

PCM / ME
34/140

2.048 Mpbs

PCM / ME
Order 1

A high rate link is the result of a succession of PCM/ME multiplexing

stages, serving to increase:
digital transmission rate
link channel capacity.

139.264
Mbps

OPTICAL FIBER:

COAXIAL CABLE
R F LINK

HIGHER
ORDER
MULTIPLEXER

HIGHER
ORDER
MULTIPLEXER
SATELLITE

OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY

(PDH)
1

2.048 Mb/s
HD B3
Primary
1

8.448 Mb/s
HD B3
Secondary
1

34.368 Mb/s
HD B3
Tertiary
1

139.264 Mb/s
HD B3
Quaternary
1
280Mb/s

Primary

T e le p h o n e

M 1-2

PCM

Audio

M 2-3

M 3-4

280Mb/s

Multiplex

T e le p h o n e

30

11

Limitations / Disadvantages of PDH:

1. Inability to drop lower bit rates directly from 3rd or 4th order
2. Alternate Routing - Data lost during rerouting
3. Frame slip - Due to lack of Synchronization
4. Limited NMS Support - No spare signal capacity
5. Higher Bit rates are proprietary - no possibility of inter working

1.2Gb/s
Etc.

Multiplexer Mountain
34 Mbps
140M

140/34

140/34

8 Mbps
34/8

34/8

2 Mbps
8/2

8/2

Customer

140M

SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY

(SDH)

Background/History:
CCITT Study Group XVIII formed in June 1986
November 1988
- First SDH standards were approved
- G 707, 708 & 709.
Advantages:
1. No need for Mux banks as per hierarchy to drop lower data
rates.
2. Common standard enabling multi-vendor network
3. Better Management - TMN
- nearly 5% of signal bandwidth
4. Accommodates both existing and future services ATM, B-ISDN etc.
5. Fast provisioning
6. Better network survivability

SDH HIERARCHY (CCITT)

Synchronous Transport Module
STM - 1
STM - 4
STM - 16

155.52 Mb/s
622.08 Mb/s
2.488 Gb/s

Equivalent SONET (USA) standards are

(Optical Carrier) OC1, OC3, OC12 & OC48

SDH NETWORK ELEMENTS

Line Terminal Mux (LTM): Can accept a no. of Tributary

signals and multiplex them to the appropriate optical / electrical
SDH rate carrier i.e. STM-1/4/16.
The input tributaries can be either PDH/lower rate SDH Signals.
TMs form the main gateway from the PDH to SDH network
STM-N
(N=4 or 16)

140MB or
STM1

LTM
1+1 Protection Switching

SDH NETWORK ELEMENTS

Add Drop Mux (ADM): A particular type of Mux designed to
add / drop channels from the through signal. Generally available
at STM-1/4 interface rates and signals at 2/34/140 Mb/s.
ADM function is one of the major advantages of SDH, eliminating
the need for banks of hardwired back-back terminals.
STM1

STM1

East

ADM

2MB

West

2MB

SDH NETWORK ELEMENTS

Synchronous Digital Cross Connect (SDxC): They can function as

semi-permanent switches for transmission channels and can switch
at any level from 64kbps to STM-1, generally having interfaces at
STM-1/4.
Can be rapidly reconfigured under software control, to provide digital
leased lines and other services of varying bandwidth.
DXC
STM-1

STM-1

SDH NETWORK ELEMENTS

Regenerator: For SDH Transmission over 50km, regenerators

are required with spacing dependent on transmission
technology. They have alarm reporting and performance
monitoring capability.
STM-N

STM-N

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE

SDH Terms:
STM-N: Synchronous Transport Module n (n=1,4, 16) consists of
FRAMES into which data is filled.
VC-4 : Virtual Container Level 4. A defined area to carry user data;
140Mbps.
TU: Tributary Unit Signal. Subdivision of VC-4 to carry lower rate
services (2,34MB)
Analogous to Road Transport System:
STM Frames

A
Optical Carrier

VC-4

A
TU Frames

B
Pallets = TU Frames

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE

SDH - a transport system
The transport system adopted in SDH is analogues to a road
transport system. If you need to deliver items between 2 points
you need trucks. Depending on the quantity of items to be
moved you need small or large trailers. Depending on the size
of the items being shipped you need pallets to allow simple
stacking with the trailer payload area. For different item types
you have different pallets and different loading instructions.
SDH has exactly the same concepts wit different names:
Road Optical Carrier
Truck Synchronous Transport Module
Trailer Virtual Container level 4
Pallets Tributary unit frames

Synchronous Transport Frame for STM-1

155. 52
Mbit/s

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

F6
810 BYTES

Framing Bytes

A1

STM-1

A2

9 ROWS
SECTION
OVERHEAD

STM-1 Virtual Container

(VC-4)

261
270 COLUMNS

2430 BYTES/FRAME * 8 BITS/BYTE * 8000 FRAMES/SEC = 155. 52 Mbit/s

A1 = Frame word = 11110110;

B1 = 00101000

Etc.

Synchronous Transport Frame for STM-1

Six Framing Bytes (3 X A1 followed by 3 X A2 Bytes) act as a marker,
allowing any byte in the frame to be easily located.
The concept of Transporting Tributary Signals intact across a
Synchronous network has resulted in the term, Synchronous
Transport Frame, consisting of two parts a VC part & a Section Overhead part.
VC: Individual tributary signals are arranged within the VC for end-toend transmission. VC is assembled and disassembled only once,
even though it may be transferred from one transport system to
another many times.
Section Overhead (SOH): this provides facilities (such as alarm
monitoring, BER monitoring and datacom chls.) required to support
and maintain the transportation of a VC between nodes in a
synchronous network. SOH pertains only to an individual transport
system and is not transferred with the VC between transport systems.

Synchronous Transport Frame for STM-1

Section Overhead (SOH): To ensure that the clock can always be

recovered from the received data , all bytes in the frame except those
in the first row of SOH are scrambled.

Tributary
Signal
VC ASSEMBLY
NODE
Section
Overhead X

SDH NETWORK
NODES

Transport
System X

Transport
System Y

Transport
Frame X

Transport
Frame Y
Section
Overhead Y

Tributary
Signal
VC ASSEMBLY
NODE

SDH MUX HIERARCHY

xN
STM-N

140MB/ S

x1
AUG

AU-4

VC-4

C-4

x3
Admin Unit
Group
TUG-3

TU-3

VC-3
34 MB/ S

x7
Tributary Unit
Group

C-3
x3
TUG-2

TU-12

VC - 12

C - 12
2MB/ S

C - 12

Container
+ Overhead

Tributary Unit (TU)

+ Pointer

Addressing Unit (AU)

STM-1 -> 155 52MB/S

-- 63X2 MB/S
-- 3 X34 MB/S
-- 1X140 MB/S

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM

N signal

A corresponding arrangement is used for demultiplexing

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM N

2.048 Mbps

1 2 3

(E1)

32

32 Bytes
Stuffing Bytes

C-12

1 23

32

34 Bytes

POH (Lower Order)

VC-12

1 23

32

35 Bytes

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM N

Pointer

TU-12
36 Bytes

TU 12 is arranged
Into Matrix of 9 X 4

9 Rows

4 Columns

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM N

TU-12

TU-12

TU-12

9 Rows

4 Columns

4 Columns

4 Columns

Multiplexing

TUG-2

9 Rows

12 Columns

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM N

7 TUG-2s

Stuffing Bytes

X 7 TUG-2

TUG-3(multiplexing)

TUG 3

86 Columns

84 Columns

STM-1 frame structure

1-3 rows

RSOH

4th row

AU Pointer

5-9 rows

MSOH

9 Columns

PAY LOAD

261 Columns
270 Columns

Mapping of 2Mbps into STM N

9 rows

POH

VC - 4

Pay Load

261 Columns

AU Pointer
4 th Row

9 Columns

POH

AU 4 (Adding Pointer)

Pay Load

261 Columns

Path OverHead

TCM Tandem Connection Monitoring

SDH MUX HIERARCHY

To take care of small timing differences in the synchronous
network and simplify Mux / demux and cross connection of
signals, VC-4 is allowed to float; may begin in one frame and
end in next.
Additional bytes called AU Pointer in SOH, contains a Pointer
value to indicate the location of the first byte of VC-4.
TRIBUTARY
SIGNAL

PAYLOAD

140 MB/S

MAPPING

(C - 4)

STUFF BITS

PAYLOAD
CAPACITY

SYNC.VC

Mapped
140MB/S
at 149.76MB/S

VC - 4
150.34 MB/S
PATH
OVERHEAD

VC - 4
Assembly Process

SDH PROTECTION
1. Hardware / Board Protection:
For 2MB protection of Card failure
Switching time ~ 2 Sec.

2. MS (Multiplex Section) Protection:

for TMs - DoT PoIs
for STM Aggregate protection against card failure
Switching time ~ 2 Sec
3. SNCi (Sub Network Control-inherent monitoring) Protection ADMs:
Path protection against fiber cut / node failure.
STM-1 protection - data parallely sent on both directions and
better one is selected or available one incase of failure.
Switching time < 100ms.

Digital Microwave

BELL Digital Multiplex Hierarchy

1.544 Mb/s
B8ZS
DS1

1
Primary
PCM
Multiplex
24

Audio

6.312 Mb/s
B6ZS
DS2

44.736 Mb/s
B3ZS
DS3

M1-2

90 Mbps
180 Mbps
432 Mbps

M2-3

24

565 Mbps
etc.

European Digital Multiplex Hierarchy

Audio

1
Primary
PCM
Multiplex
30

2.048 Mb/s
HDB3
Primary

8.448 Mb/s
HDB3
Secondary

34.368 Mb/s
HDB3
Teritary

M1-2
4

M2-3
4

139.264 Mb/s
CMI
Quaternary
1
M3-4

280 Mbps
565 Mbps
1.2 Gbps
etc.

BELL Digital Multiplex Hierarchy

The various digital services, whether they are digitized
telephony (64 kbps PCM or 32kbps ADPCM), data, videotex or
facsimile etc., are time division multiplexed (TDM) together to
form higher rate bit streams. This is done in stages as shown in
this slide of the North American and European digital
hierarchies. These are the most commonly used hierarchy
rates, different hierarchies are used in Japan and in some
military systems. The output of each multiplex stage may form
the tributary stream for the next stage of multiplexing in a highcapacity system, or may pass directly to the transmission
system in a lower-capacity route.

Digital Transmission System

MEDIA

LINE (COAX CABLE)

Terminal

DIGITAL Radio

Higher
Order
Multiplex

Terminal
Higher
Order
Multiplex

SATELLITE

CCITT
INTERFACE

CCITT
INTERFACE
OPTICAL FIBER

Digital Transmission System

The bit rates and interface codes etc are all standardized by CCITT
(International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee) and are
independent of the particular transmission medium used.
The
transmission system may carry traffic at any of the bit-rates in the
hierarchy, depending on the capacity through-put requirements of the
system. The testing and the performance of the system at these
interfaces relates to network performance in the IDN and again is specified
by CCITT independent of the transmission media. These standards have
been adopted by CEPT in Europe and by the ANSI/ECSA*TI Committee in
North America.
This slide shows the four commonly used methods of transmission. Optical
fiber is the most popular for high-capacity routes in Network Operators
(PTTs Telcos and Common Carriers) where existing routes or wayleaves exist. However, Microwave Radio and Satellite have many
applications in lower capacity routes, in difficult terrain and in private and
military communication networks where the advantages of flexibility,
security and speed of installation offered by Radio and particularly
valuable.

FIRST REPEATER

RF

IF

SECOND REPEATER

REGEN

IF

RF

REPEATER

CCITT INTERFACE
IN

MOD

CCITT INTERFACE
IF

Transmit Terminal

RF

RF

IF

DEMOD
Receive Terminal

OUT

A practical Radio relay system often consist of several hops as the

maximum distance between transmit and receive antennas or hop
length is normally 30 60 km (20-40 miles) in a line-of-sight system. The
intermediate stations are called repeater stations and the traffic data
stream may not necessarily be brought down to CCITT interface at these
points, but simply regenerated at the binary level. Some Radios use a
direct IF repeater without regeneration. This saves cost, but some of the
benefits of digital transmission are lost because of the build up of noise
and distortion in a similar way to analog Radio systems.
The microwave frequency bands and the Radio channel spacing in these
bands have all been standardized by CCIR (International Radio
Consultative Committee) and FCC in North America. Some typical
frequency bands are 2 GHz (used for lower capacity), 4,6,7,8,11 and 14
GHz. Above 11 GHz rain attenuation becomes a greater problem
necessitating a shorter hop length for a given system availability. There is
a new generation of Radios becoming available, operating in the range
15-50 GHz which provides low and high capacity short-haul links in cities
for interconnecting business centers with main transmission centers. The
small physical size of antennas at these frequencies makes this type of
link very easy to install.

Digital Radio Block Diagram

C
O
D
E
R

MOD

~
~

UPCONVERTER

~
~

DEMOD
~

DOWNCONVERTER

D
E
C
O
D
E
R

Here is a simplified block diagram of a digital Radio transmitter and receiver.

Those of you familiar with analog Radio will recognize a strong similarity in the
block diagram, though the modulator and demodulator sections are very different
as we shall see later.

Digital Radio Block Diagram

This block diagram shows IF modulation and demodulation (at the familiar
70 MHz or 140 MHz IF) with up and down conversion to the microwave
transmit frequency. Most high-capacity digital Radios use this system but
there are quite a number of low-capacity Radios with simple modulation
schemes which use direct modulation at microwave frequencies. In this
case the modulator is connected directly to the power amplifier.
Most Radios use the same receiver structure with down-conversion to the
IF where the automatic gain controlled amplifier (typically 50 - 60 dB
range) maintains a constant level to the demodulator during fading.
Notice the various filters through the transmitter and receiver. These are
very important in the overall design as we shall see later. First we will look
at the coder and decoder section sections which provide the interface to
the outside world.

Coding

DATA AT
Radio CLOCK RATE

SERVICE CHANNELS, ALARMS, ETC.

CODED/BINARY
CONVERTOR

e.g. 139Mb/s CI
34Mb/S HDB3
44.7 Mb/sB3ZS

CLOCK
(CCITT)

TO

BUFFER
STORE

BINARY
DATA

STANDARD
CCITT
CODED
INTERFACE

e.g. 141 MHz

MODULATOR

MULTIFLEX
AND
FRAMING

PARITY
CHECK

SCRAMBLER

DIFFERENTIAL
ENCODER

CLOCK RATE
CONVERSION

TYPICAL DIGITAL Radio CODER

At first this block diagram looks rather complicated; however, its function is simply
to provide the standard CCITT interface to the integrated digital network and then
adapt the sequential bit stream to add the additional information used by the Radio.
The result is that the Radio operates at a higher bit rate than the CCITT interface.
The additional information such as digital service channels* and alarms are
multiplexed into the data stream along with framing signals to allow the receiver to
sort out which bit is which.

Coding
After this, a parity circuit adds a parity bit to produce an even or odd number of
ones in a given block of data. Then the signal is passed through a scrambler
to randomize the data being transmitted. The parity check is used by the
receiver to check for errors in transmission and to initiate protection switching.
The differential encoder provides the interface to the digital modulator and
decides how the binary data will be encoded on the individual phase states.
In practical Radios, two or more of these blocks may be combined into a single
function or even one integrated circuit! At the receiver the decoder performs a
similar function in reverse. Note at a repeater station where no CCITT
interface is required, some of the blocks may not be required. Generally this
digital circuitry is highly reliable and does not require testing in installation or
maintenance with the exception perhaps of jitter testing at the CCITT interfaces
(G823 CEPT Standards, G824 North American Standards and Bell Technical
References 43501 and 43806 and ECSA TIX1.3 Committee).
*Service Channel and Alarm capabilities are typically short haul, part-line communication
channels used for maintenance of the Radio system. Some Radios do not use digital service
channels but instead frequency modulate the audio channel directly onto the carrier signal
independently of the digital transmission.

Encoding the Input data

0

0
CCITT Standard
input Data

Binary Equivalent

0 1
0

0 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 1
Rate Conversion

Framing and
Service Channel

Scrambling

Mapping and

Differential Coding

Here is an example of how the coding circuits of a Radio might modify an

incoming data stream. In our example, the incoming return to zero signal is
converted to a typical non-return to zero format. Depending on the rates the
signal may be TTL or ECL. The Radio will add additional information to the
incoming data. Therefore, to accommodate this additional information the
original data is converted to a higher rate. The Radio specific information is
then added. This original data may contain a long sequence of zeroes. If
transmitted this would alter the desired spectrum and confuse the receiver.
The avoid this problem, a pseudo random sequence is modulated onto the
data stream. This sequence is known by the receiver so that the original
signal can be recovered. One of the final steps is to create two signals, I and
Q, which are fed to the modulator. These signals determine the resulting
digital format of the transmitted signal.

Frequency Shift Keying

Frequency modulation and phase modulation are closely related. A static
frequency shift of +1Hz means that the phase is constantly advancing at the
rate of 360 degrees per second (2
rad / sec), relative to the phase of the
unshifted signal.
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is used in many applications including cordless
and paging systems. Some of the cordless systems include DECT (Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telephone) and CT2 (Cordless Telephone 2).
In FSK, the frequency of the carrier is changed as a function of the
modulating signal (data) being transmitted. Amplitude remains unchanged.
In binary FSK (BFSK or 2FSK). A 1 is represented by one frequency and a
0 is represented by another frequency.

Analog Vs. Digital Modulation

AM
FM
PM
Digital
With digital modulation information is in the phase and amplitude of the signal.

Analog Vs. Digital Modulation

The coder and modulator work together to put the data information onto
the carrier. Digital data can be put on a carrier using analog modulation
like amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) or phase
modulation (PM).
Digital modulation is very similar to analog
modulation in many respects. In fact, digital or I-Q modulation is a
combination of amplitude and phase modulation.
However, I-Q
modulation transmits data more efficiently than analog modulation and
is more immune to noise.

QPSK Modulation
4 Possible States
Q
01

00

V
j

11

10

QPSK Modulation 4 Possible States

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK or 4-PSK) again uses constant
carrier magnitude but now four different phase values (I.e. 450 , 1350 ,
2250 and 3150) are used. The modulation phase states can be
generated by adding together appropriate amplitudes of in-phase and
quadrature carrier (Vi and Va), or alternatively by phase shifting the
microwave carrier directly using an electronically switched phase
shifter such as wave guide stubs or delay lines.
because we have four discrete states or symbols, we can transmit more
information per state in this case, as you can see, 2-bits of binary
data, or a symbol, are encoded on each of the states. Because the
serial data is taken 2 bits at a time to form the symbol, the symbol, the
symbol-rate is half the bit-rate is half. This is because the bandwidth
required is proportional to the symbol rate not the data rate.

Some Typical Modulation Formats

QPSK

BPSK

16QAM

8PSK

64QAM

Some Typical Modulation Formats

In summary here are some common digital Radio modulation
schemes from simple BPSK to complex 64QAM. It is interesting to
compare the bandwidth efficiency of these schemes with analog FM
Radio when transmitting telephony. When carrying 64Kbit PCM,
only 64QAM can match an FDM/FM Radio! So why does anyone
bother with simple modulation schemes? The answer is that with
64 QAM the states are so close together that the immunity to noise
and interference is greatly reduced compared with BPSK and
QPSK. In hostile or noisy conditions (e.g. satellite) the simple
schemes are favored. In high-capacity line-of-sight systems where
signals are strong, bandwidth efficiency is often considered more
important, 256 QAM systems are now being put into use.

Symbol Rate:
The rate at which the carrier
moves from one point in the
constellation to the next point

The symbol rate is important because it tells you the bandwidth required
to transmit the signal.

QPSK Modulator
BALANCED
MODULATOR

SYMBOL RATE:
Fs = f b / 2

00
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
BINARY CONVERTER
NRZ
INPUT
SIGNAL
fb

CARRIER

I.F

PHASE
SHIFT

COMBINER
900
01

Fs = fb / 2
QUADRATURE DATA STREAM

BPF

900

BALANCED
MODULATOR

11

00

10
COMBINED VECTOR
STATE DIAGRAM

QPSK Modulator
In QPSK the incoming bit-stream is divided into two parallel streams so
that one bit is fed simultaneously to both I & Q balanced modulators to
construct the 2 bit symbols. The carrier output from the modulator is
switched under the control of the digital bit-stream and by adding together
the I and Q outputs the phase state diagram is generated. In this case the
band limiting filter is a band pass filter if IF, though, provided the
modulators are linear, the filtering could have been implemented with LPF
filters before the balanced modulators, thereby shaping the spectrum of
the incoming pulses. Practically, some band-limiting is required before the
modulators, otherwise the very wide sin x/x spectrum will fold around de
and overlay the desired central lobe of the spectrum

QPSK Demodulator
Phase
Demodulator
LPF

Thresh
Comp.

Fb/2

OO
BPF
IF
Input

Power
Splitter

Car
Rec.

Symbol
Timing
Rec. (STR)

Phase
Splitter

Parallel to
Serial
Convertor

900
Fb/2
O

Phase
Demodulator

LPF

Thresh
Comp.

O
Binary
NRZ
fb

QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK demodulator works in a similar way to the modulator, extracting
the I and Q streams by demodulation using in-phase and quadrature
carrier signals. The demodulator is more complicated because it must
recover a carrier signal and timing signal from the incoming IF. Carrier
recovery is usually implemented using a non-linear process such as
frequency multiplication followed by a phase-locked loop. Symbol-timing is
recovered from the demodulated data stream by a tuned circuit or phaselocked loop filtering out the clock component in the data stream. The
scrambler in the transmitter ensures there is always a clock component
independent of the data fed to the Radio input.
The demodulator I and Q streams are filtered to remove unwanted IF
signals and then passed into threshold detectors where a signal is
sampled by the symbol-timing clock to determine whether a 1 or 0 is
present and to regenerate the data stream. It is during this sampling and
regeneration process that errors occur as we shall see later when we
consider the effects of noise.

I, Q, Eye Diagram and Constellation

I +1
-1
+1

Q -1
1

EYE

Q
2

1,4
CONSTELLATION

I, Q, Eye Diagram and Constellation

Notice in the previous picture that the modulator uses an I and a Q
signal. These signals determine the type of modulation created by
the modulator. In this picture both the I and Q signals carry one bit of
information. This means that each signal has two levels. This tells us
that the output will be QPSK. The top two waveforms are I vs. time
and Q vs. time. They are marked at equally spaced timing instants.
At these instants the waveform has settled to one of its predefined
levels (two possible levels for QPSK). If we plot I vs. Q we see the
constellation. I and Q each have two possible states so there are
four states in the constellation.
The EYE diagrams are simply I vs. Time and Q vs. time as these
waveforms appear on an oscilloscope which is triggered at the timing
instants.

Required Bandwidths

As we shall shortly see, the spectrum used by a digital Radio is a

percentage of its main lobe. Therefore, if this lobe is wider, more
spectrum is used in transmission. Filters are used throughout the Radio
to limit the spectrum and the minimum tolerable bandwidth is determined
by the symbol rate.

Unfiltered Digital Radio Spectrum

fc-5F8

fc-4F8

fc-3F8

fc-2F8

fc-F8

fc

fc+F8

fc+2F8 fc+3F8

fc+4F8

fc+5F8

The unfiltered output of the digital Radio modulator occupies a very wide
bandwidth, theoretically infinite defined by the sin x/x characteristic. The
digital signal modulating the Radio is random, so the spectrum analyzer
shows a noise spectrum picture with a spectral density shown in the side.
In fact, the spectrum of Radio should be independent of the data input to
the Radio - this is the purpose of the scrambler. The nulls in the
spectrum occur at multiples of the symbol rate of the Radio. The
absence of the scrambler could cause a line spectrum to appear with
some repetitive incoming data streams.

A FILTERED Radio
C
O
D
E
R

MOD

U/C

Signal
requires
less
bandwidth but data is
filtered.

D/C

DEMOD

D
E
C
O
D
E
R

A FILTERED Radio
For practical application the Radio spectrum must be restricted
to avoid interference with adjacent channels. The Radio filters
are designed to do this while, at the same time, not degrading
the data transmission.
Our signal is filtered so that it is completely contained in a
relatively small bandwidth. In this way, other Radios can
transmit at frequencies close to our transmit frequency.
However, filtering our signal will make it difficult to decode. In
fact, without careful attention to the pulse shaping effects of
filters, the error rate can increase dramatically.

The Filtering is Distributed in the

Radio
C
O
D
E
R

MOD

~
~

UPCONVERTER

~
~

DEMOD
~

DOWNCONVERTER

D
E
C
O
D
E
R

The Filtering is Distributed in the

Radio
The overall filtering function we have been considering is the effect of cascading all the
filters in the transmitter and receiver from the output of the coder in the transmitter to the
input of the regenerator in the receiver. The overall response must have flat group-delay.
The main band shaping is usually shared between transmitter and receiver, for example
a square-root raised cosine filter characteristic in each.
This shaping is often done by the IF filters and BB low-pass filters with RF sections being
flat. Individual filters will not necessarily have the raised cosine response we have
discussed and of course, will not always have a flat amplitude response familiar in
analog Radio.
Comment:
Practical Radio filters may not have exactly are the theoretical response described in this
section. Modern computer optimization techniques enable a variety of amplitude and
group delay characteristics to be synthesized which approximate to the zero ISI
requirement.
Another variant in filter design is the so-called partial response system (PRS) or
correlative system. In this design the channel bandwidth is deliberately restricted to less
than the Nyquist bandwidth so that controlled ISI produces a multi-level signal. An
adaptive filter or correlative detector issued in the receiver. Examples of these systems
are 9 QPR (filtered QPSK) and 40 QPR (filtered 16 QAM). In common with other
complex modulation schemes, greater bandwidth efficiency is achieved at the expense of
noise immunity.

Spectral Efficiency
Theoretical Limit
BPSK
QPSK
16 QAM
64 QAM
256 QAM

1 bit/sec/Hz
2 bit/sec/Hz
4 bit/sec/Hz
6 bit/sec/Hz
8 bit/sec/Hz

AM Radio is not a very efficient way to send digital information. The 16

QAM Radio in the previous example doesnt use all of its potential
efficiency. However, wasting a little capacity could make the des.ign easier
to implement and more reliable, and for many applications this type of
Radio is quire adequate. In general, analog Radio is more efficient at
transmitting voice channels than digital Radios. However, digital Radios
are far more efficient for transmitting digital information and the signal
quality is higher.

Block Diagram of a Radio Link with

Impairments
MODERN IMPAIRMENTS
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE

DECISION
DEVICE

DATA
SOURCE
FADING

MOD
f or
IF
FILTER

B
R
A
N
C
H
I
N
H
F
I
L
T
E
R
S

B
R
A
N
C
H
I
N
H
F
I
L
T
E
R
S

f or

f
IF
FILTER

LO

LO
PHASE
NOISE

DEMOD

INTERFERERS
NON LINEARITIES

TERMINAL
NOISE

Block Diagram of a Radio Link with

Impairments
A practical digital Radio can suffer from a number of impairments
which give rise to error generation in the system. The most common
causes of degradation are illustrated on this slide*.
As you can see, some of these impairments are due to propagation
and interference effects and are external to the Radio equipment,
while others are due to imperfections in the digital Radio itself.
First we will look at how we characterize the performance of a Radio.
After this we will stress the Radio to predict its ability to cope with
transmission impairments, and finally we will measure individual
impairments.
*Comparison of High-Level Modulation Schemes for High-Capacity Digital Radio
Systems by Michel Borgne. IEEE Transactions on communication,
Vol. Comm-33 No.5 May 1985. pp 442-449.

Frequency / Power
C
O
D
E
R

M
O
D
U
L
A
T
O
R

Fader

TTS

O
Power Meter

O
RF

Frequency / Power
A power meter and frequency counter are probably the two most commonly
used pieces of test equipment used on a digital Microwave Radio. Initial
alignment procedures include adjusting LO frequencies. Therefore, monitor
points are readily available. Transmitted power frequency are logged on a
routine basis for virtually every Radio.
Radio transmitters carry high power levels often in excess of 30 dBm.
Therefore, use the appropriate attenuators to avoid destroying test
equipment. In general, the IF section of the Radio will have 75
terminations while the RF section will have 50 . Use a 50 to 75 adapter
where appropriate to assure accurate power measurements.

Error Performance Testing

PRBS

OUT-OF SERVICE
DIGITAL Radio SYSTEM

PATTERN
GENERATOR

TRANSMITTER

ERROR
DETECTOR

RECEIVER

IN-SERVICE

Radio ALARM PANEL

PARITY CHECK

TRAFFIC

TRANSMITTER

O
O
O

RECEIVER

PARITY OUTPUT
PULSES

TRAFFIC
ERROR
ANALYSER

Error Performance Testing

Error Performance measurements can be made in two ways:
Out-of Service, where the traffic is removed and a Pseudo-Random Binary
Sequence (PRBS) is applied to the transmit terminal, and the received data
stream checked bit by bit for errors. Sequence lengths of 215-1and 223-1 are
specified by CCITT. This is the preferred method for assessing the performance
of the Radio particularly during commissioning since every bit is checked for
errors. Normally the pattern-generator and error-detector are connected at the
coded CCITT interface on the terminal. Alternatively, the connection may be
made at a binary data and clock interface depending on the terminal design.
In-service, where the Radio operates normally carrying revenue-earning traffic
and the error performance is measured internally by parity checking on data
blocks. This works quite well at moderate or low error ratios, but becomes
inaccurate during bursts of errors, for example during multi path fading, when
there is a possibility of parity error cancellation in the data block. The result of
this simple test is usually displayed on the Radio Control Panel. Alternatively the
parity error detection may be available as an electrical pulse which can be
connected to the external error input of the error analyzer. Through-data
options of the HP3764A AND HP3784A offer through data jitter modulation. This
allows the user to make measurements of jitter tolerance on equipment which
needs framing bits to be present in the test signal eg. Demultiplexers.

Jitter Measurements in the Digital

Network
JITTER
GENERATOR

PATTERN
GENERATOR

JITTER
RECEIVER

MOJ/MIOJ

MTIJ

Tx

Rx
DIGITAL RADIO
LINK

JTF

MTIJ = Maximum Tolerable Input Jitter

MOJ = Maximum Output Jitter

ERROR
DETECTOR

MIOJ = Maximum Intrinsic Output Jitter

JTF = Jitter Transfer Function

Jitter Measurement in the Digital

Network
Perhaps the most common Jitter measurements are made at the standard
CCITT interface on the Radio which connects with the Digital Network. A
number of Jitter specifications have been laid down by CCITT for the
CCITT standard hierarchy rates. The idea is that if a piece of equipment
meets the specifications at its input and output, then it can be connected
freely within the Digital Network without degrading Jitter performance and
causing errors.
There are three classes of Measurements:
Maximum Tolerable Input Jitter: Which is tested by applying
increasing Jitter to an input data stream and determining the onset of
bit errors.
Maximum Output Jitter(AND Intrinsic Output Jitter: Which is the
level of output jitter with a jittered (or jitter-free) input signal.
Jitter Transfer Function: Which is a measure of how the Jitter is
attenuated by passing through the system, a necessary specification to
prevent jitter accumulation in the network.

Jitter Measurement in the Digital

Network
Although Jitter measurements are mostly made within the factory where
equipment should be fully checked to the appropriate specification, they are
sometimes made in the field, particularly with large networks where there
may be a chance of Jitter accumulation.
The Jitter options of the HP 3764A and HP3784A perform these
measurements to the CCITT standards, so are well suited to performing
these jitter measurements.

Return Loss

CRYSTAL
DETECTOR

Fader

TTS

O
Power Meter

WG to Coax
Adapters

O
RF

LEVELLING
HEAD

DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER

LOCATE DAMAGE PREVENT DISPERSION

ANTENNA
FEED

Return Loss
Even a perfectly adjusted Radio may not operate properly if attached to
a damaged or poorly installed antenna system. Multiple reflections
within the antenna feeder system can recombine and cause dispersive
fading (a non-flat transfer function). Return loss is a common measure
of the health of an antenna feeder network. A minimum acceptable
return loss is often specified in the radio manual. For example, 64
QAM radios often require that the antenna have a return loss of 24dB
or better.
DRTS is ideal to measure return loss. For a description of the
measurement see AN 379-2 Measuring Microwave Radio Antenna
Return Loss using the HP 11758T Digital Radio Test System.

Practical C/N Vs BER Curves

BER
10-3
10-4

Implementation
Margin

10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12

RF
BACK TO BACK
IF
BACK TO BACK
IDEAL
(Theoretical or
Design

Background BER

20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40

C/N RATIO (dB)

Practical C/N Vs BER Curves

When we look at the performance of an actual Radio, the results depart from
the theoretical values in the way shown in this slide*. The difference
between theory and practice is sometimes called the implementation margin
and results from all the imperfections that can occur in practical Radio.
The poorer the performance, the greater the required C/N for a given bit
error ratio (BER). At high C/N ratio the digital Radio performance becomes
asymptotic to the low-level background (or dribble) BER.
* The practical results shown, are for a 64-QAM Radio, and are plotted on
error-function paper which has a vertical scale such that the theoretical
curve plots as a straight line. Deviations from this line for practical systems
are then clearly seen.
Comment
Normally a Radio will be worse than the theoretical curve, I.e. it will require a higher
C/N ratio for a given BER. The exception is for systems using forward error correction
(FEC) when the practical system can have an overall performance better than
theoretical, in which case, bandwidth is being exchanged for better BER. Some lineof-sight Radios use this technique, and it is quire common in satellite systems.

Inter-symbol Interface

Inter-symbol Interface
We wish to send a signal which has only a specific number of
possible values at the timing instants. If we poorly filter our data
stream the result will be many possible levels on the output. In fact,
the output level resulting from a 1 being transmitted can change
depending on the data which preceded it. This problem is called
inter symbol interference.

Adjacent Channel Interference and

Spectral Occupancy Tests
C
O
D
E
R

MOD

~
~

SPECTRUM
ANALYSER

UPCONVERTER

SPECTRUM
ANALYSER

~
~

DOWNCONVERTER

DEMO
D

D
E
C
O
D
E
R

Adjacent Channel Interference and

Spectral Occupancy Tests
These two tests are generally made with a Spectrum Analyser. The Spectral
Occupancy test is a measure of how well unwanted sidebands and spurious signals
have been suppressed by the successive filters in the transmitter. To minimize
interference to adjacent radio channels it is very important that the Radio complies with
the occupancy mask laid down by the local regulating authority (e.g. the FCC in the
USA or a PTT in a European country etc.).
The levels of interface present at the receiver can also be checked using a spectrum
analyzer with the associated transmitter switched off. Sources of interference include:

Adjacent Channel - due to poor out-of-band suppression from adjacent

transmitters.
Co-channe - from another Radio on the same frequency possibly using
an opposite polarization.
External Sources such as Radar Systems.
Interference causes eye-closure in the demodulator and results in a C/N
penalty or loss of receiver sensitivity.

Nyquist Filtering

Raised Cosine

Nyquist Filtering
There are certain types of filters which dont cause inter-symbol
interference (ISI). These filters limit the spectrum to provide
high spectral efficiency. In addition, these filters resonate in
such a way that, although the path between timing instants
varies depending on the data sequence, the number of possible
states at the timing instant remains unchanged. The result is
that the output signal can be decoded once the timing instants
are determined by the receiver.

Digital Radio Links

Planning Objectives:
The main goal of Radio link route planning is to achieve in the most economical way,
the transmission performance corresponding to the users needs. The criteria for this
are set by the requirements for the total connection based either on the CCIR
recommendations and national specifications (public telephone networks) or the
users own performance requirements (dedicated networks).

Availability Objectives:
A digital Radio-relay system is considered to be in an unavailable state if in at least

one direction of transmission, one or both of the following conditions occur for at
least 10 consecutive seconds.
1. The digital signal is interrupted (including alignment and timing losses).
2. The BER is greater than 10-3
This unavailability may be caused by equipment failures, adverse propagation
conditions, interference or other reasons.
the CCIR HAS GIVEN Rec.557 for availability objectives in the high grade portion of
an ISDN/3/. For medium and low grade circuits there exist no recommendations for
the present.
For the high grade portion of ISDN (2500KMHRDP) the availability objective is
99.7% of the time corresponding 0.033% unavailability for a 280KM section.

Clearance:
To determine the clearance the terrain profile of the hop is usually drawn on a
hop profile chart, made for the value of k equal to 4/3. In this case, the Radio
wave propagation path during normal conditions forms a straight line on the
chord. The clearance at a given point is then the distance between the terrain
surface and the chord joining the transmitting and receiving antennas. When
calculating the clearance one should take into account buildings and they
average height of trees (in temperate climates typically 1020 m in tropic 20
40 m.)

rF = 17.3 *

d1 * d2 (d*f)

rF is the radius of the first Fresnel zone (m),

F is the Radio frequency (in GHz).
d is the total hop length (km)
d1 and
d2 are the distances from the point under consideration to the end
points (km); d = d1 + d2

For f > 3 GHz

i)

100% of the radius of the first Fresnel zone is free for k = 4/3

ii)

At least zero clearance for the first Fresnel zone is obtained

for a small value of k (i.e grazing path).

Space diversity reception:

On long (> 30 km) hops with large reflecting surfaces, the only efficient
countermeasure against reflection fadings is space diversity reception.
The optimum vertical distance is between the centres of the diversity
antennas is given by Eq. (2.8).

S = 75 * d / (f * ht)
s
d
f
ht

is the optimum distance between the space diversity antennas

(m)
is the hop length (km)
is the Radio frequency (GHz)
is the height of the opposite transmitting antenna
above the reflecting surface (m)

Lho =

Lo+Lad+Lbr+Lc1+Lc2-Ga1-Ga2

Lho is unfaded hop loss

Lo is free space loss
Lad is additional terrain loss
Lbr is antenna branching loss
Lc1 and
Lc2 are antenna feeder losses
Ga1
and
Ga2
are antenna gains
(all quantities are expressed in decibels)

ANTENNA GAINS
Lho

20*log(Da) + 17.8

Ga

is the antenna gain (dB)

Da is the antenna diameter (m)

F

is the Radio frequency (GHz)

Examples of Hop Design

Isolated (no interference) hop: This situation is common in practice
because by proper design interference may often be kept small for
example by selecting high gain antennas for star points and small
interference has only minor effect on systems using modulation
methods with few signal states (e.g. 2PSK, 4PSK, MSK). The first
example also demonstrates use of space diversity on overwater paths.
The second example sketches the calculations procedure under the
presence of non-correlated interference. The actual case deals with
adjacent channel interference at a star point.
Ordinary Hop:
The phases of a normal route calculation are:
selecting the antenna heights
Calculating the fading margin
Calculating the outage time
Repeating steps 2 and 3 with varying combinations of antennas and
feeders and possibly using diversity until an economic solution
which gives the required performance is achieved.

Design Formulae
Radius of the first Fresnel zone
rF = 17.3 *
d1 * d2 (d*f)
Fading Margin
M = Ptx Lho Prxth
Total Hop Loss
Lho
=
Lo+Lad+Lbr+Lc1+Lc2-Ga1-Ga2
Free Space Loss
Lo = 92.5+20 * log(d) + 20 * log(f)
Antenna gain
Ga = 20 * log (Da) + 20 * log (f) + 17.8

MW LINK BUDGET CALCULATION

INITIAL SURVEY
LOS Survey to be done
Collect information Coordinates, Ht. Of the bldng., Connectivity to nearby sites etc.
PATHLOSS TOOL for LINK ANALYSIS
Load them in the Pathloss tool
Check for the path profile between the 2 sites and adjust the antenna hts. so that there
is enough clearance.
The Pathloss gives Distance and the Azimuths between the 2sites.
PARAMETERS TO BE CONSIDERED
Determine the type of Antenna 0.6 / 0.8 / 1.2 / 1.8 mtr.

Determine the Frequency 18 /15 / 7 GHZ

Hi Lo frequencies, of a particular spot freq., at the 2 sites of the link to be decided.

(No Hi-Lo violations allowed at a particular site.)

Input the values for Antenna Model, Antenna gain(dBi), TX Power(16/17 dB ),

Emission Designator, Rx Threshold level(-66/-71dB), Max. Receive signal(-20dB)
All Vendor Specific

MW LINK BUDGET CALCULATION

PARAMETERS TO BE CONSIDERED

Determine Polarization Vertical / Horizontal

Add the Rain fall of that region

Run the Interference Analysis

See for any Errors in Error log, Hi-Lo violations and Interference.

If any Interference check/change the following parameters

i)HEIGHT ii)POLARIZATION iii)FREQUENCY iv) TX POWER

Following are the important parameters to be checked for in the result:

Availability
99.995 %
Thermal Fade Margin
around 35 dB
Receive Signal Level
around -30 dB

15GHz Link Analysis

Sithaphal Mandi
MW=G+5+17.5
Total=35.5 mtr

Elevation (m)
Latitude
Longitude
True azimuth ()
Vertical angle ()
Antenna model
Antenna height (m)
Antenna gain (dBi)

523.76
17 25 46.00 N
078 30 58.00 E
195.47
-1.03

476.14
17 23 55.00 N
078 30 26.00 E
15.47
1.01

1.2--VHLP4-142
35.69
42.90

0.6--VHLP2-142
20.43
37.10

0.50
0.00
0.00
0.00

0.50
0.00
0.00
0.00

Circ. branching loss (dB)

TX filter loss (dB)
RX filter loss (dB)
Other RX loss (dB)
Frequency (MHz)
Polarization
Path length (km)
Free space loss (dB)
Atmospheric absorption loss (dB)
Field margin (dB)
Net path loss (dB)
Radio model
TX power (watts)
TX power (dBm)
EIRP (dBm)
Emission designator
TX Channels
RX threshold criteria
RX threshold level (dBm)
Maximum receive signal (dBm)
RX signal (dBm)
Thermal fade margin (dB)
Dispersive fade margin (dB)
Dispersive fade occurrence factor
Effective fade margin (dB)
Geoclimatic factor
Grazing angle (mr)
Path inclination (mr)
Average annual temperature (C)
Worst month - multipath (%)
Annual - multipath (%)

(sec)

(sec)
(% - sec)

Rain region
0.01% rain rate (mm/hr)
Flat fade margin - rain (dB)
Rain rate (mm/hr)
Rain attenuation (dB)
Annual rain (%-sec)
Annual multipath + rain (%-sec)
Thu, Sep 19 2002
Sithaphal Mandi (H1.2) Nallkunta(L0.6).pl4
Reliability Method - ITU-R P.530-6
Rain - ITU-R P530-7

Nallakunta
MW=G+4+6mtr
Total = 21mtr

15000.00
Horizontal
3.54
126.97
0.10
1.00
49.07
DMC-ALTIUM

49.07
DMC-ALTIUM

0.05
17.00
59.40

0.05
17.00
53.60

28MOD7W
13 A -H 15271.0000H
BER 10-3
-68.00
-20.00

28MOD7W
13A-L 14851.0000H
BER 10-3
-68.00
-20.00

-32.07
35.93
43.00

-32.07
35.93
43.00

35.15

1.00

35.15

1.41E-03
18.93
17.76
30.00
100.00000
0.01
100.00000
0.05
100.00000 - 0.10
ITU Region N
95.00
35.93
174.72
35.93
99.99884 - 364.53
99.99884 - 364.63

100.00000
0.01
100.00000
0.05

18GHz Link Analysis

TIRUMAL
MW =27 mtr

Elevation (m)
Latitude
Longitude
True azimuth ()
Vertical angle ()
Antenna model
Antenna height (m)
Antenna gain (dBi)

ALWAL
MW = 25 mtr

552.30
17 28 04.20 N
078 30 31.70 E
7.19
0.26
VHLP2-180

Miscellaneous loss (dB)

570.13
17 30 13.60 N
078 30 48.70 E
187.19
-0.29
VHLP2-180

25.00
38.70
0.50

Frequency (MHz)
Polarization
Path length (km)
Free space loss (dB)
Atmospheric absorption loss (dB)
Net path loss (dB)

26.24
38.70
0.50

18000.00
Vertical
4.01
129.63
0.22
53.45

Radio model
TX power (watts)
TX power (dBm)
EIRP (dBm)
Emission designator
TX Channels
RX threshold criteria
RX threshold level (dBm)

Citylink
0.04
16.50
54.70
28MOD7W
F8 -L 17865.0000V
BER 10-6
-72.00

Citylink
0.04
16.50
54.70
28MOD7W
F8 - H 18875.0000V
BER 10-6
-72.00

RX signal (dBm)
Thermal fade margin (dB)
Dispersive fade margin (dB)
Dispersive fade occurrence factor
Effective fade margin (dB)

-36.95
35.05
43.00

-36.95
35.05
43.00

Geoclimatic factor
Grazing angle (mr)
Path inclination (mr)
Average annual temperature (C)

Nera

53.45

34.40

Nera

1.00

4.45E-05
12.65
4.76
30.00

Worst month - multipath (%)

(sec)
Annual - multipath (%)
(sec)
(% - sec)

100.00000
4.23e-03
100.00000
0.02
100.00000 - 0.04

Rain region
Flat fade margin - rain (dB)
Rain rate (mm/hr)
Rain attenuation (dB)
Annual rain (%-sec)
Annual multipath + rain (%-sec)

ITU Region N
35.05
138.23
35.00
99.99685 - 992.05
99.99685 - 992.09

Fri, Sep 20 2002

TIRUMAL-ALWAL.pl4
Reliability Method - ITU-R P.530-6
Rain - Crane

34.40

100.00000
4.23e-03
100.00000
0.02

Fiber Optics

Why Use Fiber Optics?

1. Wide Bandwidh

High carrying capacity including voice, data and Video

WDM Technology supports lakhs of channels on a pair of optical fiber

Can carry hundreds of HDTV Channels.

2. Why Use Fiber Optics?

Digital Transmission is superior to analog transmission because the original

signal transmitted can be faithfully reproduced at the receiving stations.

Light pulses spread much less compared to other signals

Low Bit error rates.

3. Low Attenuations

Spacing between the repeater stations can be increased.

Speed of transmission increases as the number of repeater stations is reduced

Cost of the systems will reduce with the reduction in repeater stations.

Reliability increases as the no. of repeater stations is reduced

4. Electro Magnetic Immunity

Not affected by stray magnetic fields.

Does not create electro-magnetic radiation

Extremely good for applications in areas with high magnetic field like induction
equipment, high tension over head lines etc.

Ideal for computer networking process control etc.

5. Small Size

Fiber Optic cable is only one tenth the size of co-axial cable for the same
carrying capacity.

Can replace co-axial systems in underground ducts directly.

Replacement of co-axial cable by fiber optic cable of the same size, the
capacity increases by many folds.

6. Light Weight

Easy to install and maintain

Ideal for applications like airplanes, rockets, satellites, submarines etc.

7. Safety

Superior resistance to most of the acids, alkalis, water, nuclear radiation etc.

Best suited for applications in hazardous areas and difficult terrain.

8. Security

Fiber optic cables do not radiate any electro magnetic energy. So, it is very
difficult to tap the same.
Extremely good for applications like security agencies, Defense etc.

9. Reliability

Does not react with most of the known chemicals

Does not react with water

High resistance to nuclear radiation and heat

Very few breakdowns

No insulation failures

10. Ease of Installation & Maintenance

Easier to install in comparison to a copper cable.

Automatic splicing machines have improved the splice loss to 0.02dB per splice

Latest joint closures, termination boxes, splice trays etc. are extremely easy to
handle.

Advanced test instruments can localize the faults within 1m in a few minutes.

11. Upgradability

Capacity can be increased considerably by just changing the terminal

equipment

No need to replace the cables

Same fiber can also operate at different wavelengths using WDM technology
increase the capacity further.

12. Price

Very good price to performance ratio

Prices of cables, equipment, accessories and test instruments are steadily

coming down due to high volumes.

Multimedia and more such services in the same fiber will bring down the cost
further in the future.

Fiber Optics - Basics

Optical Fiber

Medium of Communication

Light

Carrier of Information

Optical Fiber

Core and Cladding

(Core inner part and Cladding outer part)

Speed of light and refractive index in different media

Refractive Index(n) of a medium

Speed of light in vacuum/speed of

light in the medium.

Material

Refractive Index(n)

Speed of light (kmps)

Vacuum
Air
Water
Fused Quartz
Glass
Diamond

1.0
1.0003(I)
1.33
1.46

300.000
300.000
225.000
205.000
1.5

2.5

200.000
120.000

Reflection

Normal
Angle of Incidence
Angle of Reflection

Reflecting Surface

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

Refraction
Normal
Angle of Incidence
n2>n1
n1

n2
Angle of
Refraction

Refraction
Normal
Angle of Incidence
n1>n2
n1

Angle of
Refraction
n2

How Fibre Works

The operation of an Optical Fibre is based on the principle of

Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
Light reflects or refracts (bends) depending on the angle at
which it strikes a surface. This occurs because different
interfaces between materials refract light in different ways.

Critical Angle
Normal
Critical Angle of
Incidence
n1

Angle of
Refraction
n2

Total Internal Reflection

Normal
n1
Angle of Incidence

Angle of Reflection

n2

n1

n2

Propagation of Light in Optical Fibre

n=1.49

n3

81

81

81

81

n=1.48

n2

n=1.8

n1

Core and Cladding

CORE

CLADDING

GLASS

GLASS

GLASS

PLASTIC

PLASTIC

GLASS

CLADDING

CORE

Different Types of Optical Fibres

TYPES OF
OPTICAL FIBRES

MULTIMODE

GRADED
INDEX

SINGLE MODE

STEP
INDEX

DEPRESSED
CLAD

MATCHED
CLAD

DISPERSION
SHIFTED

DISPERSION
FLATTERED

Core and Cladding

An Optical fibre consists of two different types of highly pure, solid
glass to form the core and cladding, over which a dual layer
protective coating is applied to protect the fibre during
cabling / laying / terminating process.
Refractive Index

n2

Cl adding
Core

n1

Reflected
Cl adding
Refracted

FIG - 1
n =

n1> n2 - Total Internal Reflection

Velocity of light in a Vaccum

Velocity of light in the Medium

Vaccum = 1.0; Pure Silica = 1.4469 (@1300nm)

Single Mode and Multi Mode Fibres

MULTI MODE:
Multi mode fibre was the first type of commercial fibre, which has larger core
diameter (50 or 62.5nm) allowing multiple modes of light to propagate through
the fibre simultaneously.
It is used primarily for short distances (<2KM) such as LAN communication, due
to more loss and less bandwidth capacity.
SINGLE MODE:
Single Mode fibre has a much smaller core (8-10nm) that allows only one mode
of light at a time to propagate through the core.
This is widely used for all voice/data transmission applications over long
distances and high capacities.
8-10
micrometre

50 - 62.5
micrometre

Single Mode

Multi Mode
125microm
etre

125
micrometre

SINGLE MODE FIBRE PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERSTICS:
The two key parameters are:
1) Attuenuation and 2) Dispersion
1) Attenuation: It is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of the
fibre and is measured in dB/KM. Lower attenuation (loss) means lesser repeaters, thus
reducing cost and increasing reliability. Typical values are 0.35dB at 1310nm and
0.25dB at 1550nm.
2) Dispersion: It is the smearing or broadening of an optical signal that results from the
many wavelength components travelling at different rates. This limits the max. data rate
carrying capacity of a SM fibre link.

Input

Output

Amp

Distance

2) Dispersion (Contd....)
The wavelength at which the Dispersion equals zero is called
the Zero-Dispersion Wavelength, which is the wavelength at
which the fibre has its max. information carrying capacity.
For SM fibres, it is around 1310nm. It is measured in
Pico-seconds / nm-KM. It is possible to shift the zero dispersion
wavelength to 1550nm by manufacturing techniques, to allow
more bandwidth and longer distances.

Cut Off Wavelength

It is the wavelength at which a single mode fibre will start acting as
multimode fibre. This is lower than the operating wavelength.

Related Accessories / Terminology

Fusion Splice: To form permanent connections between fibres in
the system using fusion (arc) Technique.
Typical Loss - 0.04 to 0.1dB.
Mechanical Splice: Alternate method for emergency restoration.
Higher loss - 0.1 to 0.5dB.
Connectors: Provide remateable connections, typically at
termination points.
Pigtails, Patch cords: Short length of flexible fibre optic cables for
terminations at the Equipments .

Fusion Splicer

Inset heat shrinkable sleeve to one of the fibres

Mount the prepared fibre in the Splicing machine
Align the fibres
Fuse the fibres
Check the splice loss using OTDR
If the plice loss is within thelimit, remove the splice put the splice protector
After the sleeve shrinks remove the same fix it in the splice protection tray
Keep the splice protection tray in the joint closure of fibre distribution frame
frame and close it.

Factors which can affect the loss of a Fusion splice?

External factors like dirt, dust etc.

Cleave angle
Fibre positioning or view angle
Geometry of the fibres
Eccentrically positioned fibre cores
Problems with the machine itself

How to identify the factors which gives high loss?

1.

Clean the fibre and the V-Grooves weel to ensure that the external parameters
are not affecting the splice loss.

2.

View the splice parameters while splicing so that the cleave angle, view angle
and geometry of the fibre can be verified.

3.

Check whether the machine is okay.

Mechanical Splice

Install mechanical splice in the splice tool

Insert the prepared fibre into one side of the mechanical splice

Insert the second prepared fibre to the other side of the mechanical splice.

Push both the fibres till they touch each other and fix the fibre on the tool
to avoid movement.

Check the insertion loss using an OTDR

Press the top of the mechanical splice loss using the tool if the splice loss
is within the limits

Remove the mechanical splice and fibres from the tool and put the same
in a splice holding tray.

Close the splice holding tray and transfer the same to joint closure or fibre
distribution frame depending on the application.

Fibre preparation for splicing and connectorisation

OPERATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.
6.
7.

TOOL USED

Remove cable outer coating to the required length

Cable Slitter
Remove loose tube or tight tube jacket to the
Loose tube stripper or
required length.
Cord stripping pliers.
Cut the Kevlar in the case of tight jacket
Ceramic Scissors.
fibre to the required length
Remove jelly using isopropyl alcohol in case of
Isopropyl Alcohol dispenser and
loose jacked fiber
tissuepaper
Strip the fiber to the required length
Fiber stripper 250/125um, 900/125um
Cleave the fibre to the required length
High Precision or Ordinary Cleaver
Clean the Fibre
Isopropyl Alocohol

Test Instruments
OTDR : Optical Time Domain Reflectometer -To detect
faults/breaks in the FO links.
Optical Power Meter : To measure the optical power at the end
of Fibre.
Optical Source : To send light source in to the Fibre for testingLaser/LED.

Application in TTL Netowork

1.
2.
3.
4.

To all the DoT PoIs

From Main Switch to Concentrator sites
Main Switch to a few CDMA Cell sites.
In future to Customers (ISPs) for high capacity leased lines.

Present Intracity capacity

Future Backbone Capacity
DWDM

- STM-1 (155MB/s 1890 voice chls)

STM-4 (622MB/S 7560 voice chls)
- STM-16 (2.5Gb/S)
- Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (n x STM-16)

11.06.2003

A presentation on

DWDM

Dense
Wavelength
Division
Multiplexing

DWDM

Some times called stacked SDH/SONET

What is DWDM ?
A multi channel fiber optic transmission system in which
one fiber transmits No of client signals provided by
different Wavelength optical carriers

Why DWDM ?
a) Overcome fiber exhaust / lack of fiber availability
problems (Better utilization of available fiber)
b) Space & Power savings at intermediate stations
c) Easier capacity expansion
d) Cost effective transmission
e) No O-E-O conversion delays
f) Wave length leasing instead of Bandwidth leasing

Why DWDM ?
Traditional Network with Repeaters, no WDM
LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

WDM Network
with Repeaters

LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

75% fewer fibers

LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

WDM Network with

Optical Amplifiers
LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

75% less equipment

LTE
LTE
LTE
LTE

Any Disadvantages of this Technology ?

Yes of course
a) Multi channel failure due to line failure
b) Requirements for more deliberate design of
Dispersion management,
gain profile management
& launched power due to broader Wavelength range
to be handled

WDM Classification:
WDM Classification is based on the Channel spacing
between 2 Wave lengths
Channel spacing > 200GHz is called CWDM
Channel spacing > 100 GHz is called WDM
Channel spacing < 100GHz is called DWDM
Channel spacing < 25GHz is called UDWDM

100 GHz is equal to 0.8 nm

Infrared Spectrum
O-Band

E-Band

1260-1360nm

1360-1460nm

1460-1530nm

1530-1565nm

1565-1625nm

CWDM

Future
DWDM

DWDM

DWDM

CWDM

S-Band

C-Band

L-Band

0.3
L
O
S
S
db/km

Low-loss range

0.2

C-Band

L-Band

0.1
0.0
1300

1400

1500

1600

Wavelength (nm)

Channel
number
1530.33
1531.12
1531.90
1532.68
1533.47
1534.25
1535.04
1535.82
1536.61
1537.40
1538.19
1538.98
1539.77
1540.56
1541.35
1542.14
1542.94
1543.73
1544.53
1545.32
1546.12
1546.92
1547.72
1548.52
1549.32
1550.12
1550.92
1551.72
1552.52
1553.33
1554.13
1554.94
1555.75
1556.56
1557.36
1558.17
1558.98
1559.79
1560.61
1561.42
1562.23

Carrier
frequency
(nm)

196.0
195.9
195.8
195.7
195.6
195.5
195.4
195.3
195.2
195.1
195.0
194.9
194.8
194.7
194.6
194.5
194.3
194.2
194.1
194.0
193.9
193.8
193.7
193.6
193.5
193.4
193.3
193.2
193.1
193.0
192.9
192.8
192.7
192.6
192.5
192.4
192.3
192.2
192.1
192.0
191.9

Carrier
wavelength

C40
C39
C38
C37
C36
C35
C34
C33
C32
C31
C30
C29
C28
C27
C26
C25
C24
C23
C22
C21
Tone ch.
C20
C19
C18
C17
C16
C15
C14
C13
C12
C11
C10
C09
C08
C07
C06
C05
C04
C03
C02
C0
1

Wavelength allocation in C-Band

(THz)

Note 1: Optical carriers are allocated on ITU-T 100 GHz (0.1 THz) grid in Rec. G. 692.
2: Tone channel is dedicated for operation & maintenance support.
3. C13 is the Centre Wavelength

Main Components in DWDM

1) Transponder
2) Omux/Odmux
3) Optical Amplifier
4) OADM
5) Regenerator

DWDM Components

IL-AMP
#n

Intermediate
regenerator
Line system

IL-AMP
#1

IL-AMP
#n

(n-1)
IL-AMP spans

Wavelength conversion
Optical mux/demux

IL-AMP
#1

IL-AMP
span
TERM
system

Client signals

WDM aggregate signals

Optical mux/demux
Ch-signal regeneration

Wavelength conversion
Optical mux/demux

Client signals

TERM
system

Transponder
A device that takes an optical signal, performs electrical
3R regeneration & re-transmits the signal in optical form
In to Wavelength grid as per G.192
It allows any Wavelength as input to DWDM
For every input Wavelength, one transponder is required
Its very useful for Wavelength leasing, as customer can
Send any wavelength

Omux/Odmux

Various Transponder outputs (Wavelengths) will be

provided as Inputs to Mux. Each input is equipped with
A selective filter of certain Wavelength. The output of
these filters are coupled to a Single Mode fiber
At the Receiver end, these Wavelengths are separated
again by a Demux & directs them to individual
Transponders
Both Mux & Demux are identical components,
only difference is that they are driven in opposite
direction

OMUX

OMUX

Wavelength
n
(n-1)
(n-2)

Channel
#n
#(n-1)
#(n-2)

Client

100 GHz

3
2
1

Aggregate Signal
over n-channels with
wavelengths ranging
from 1 to n.

#3
#2
#1

Channel spacing is
100 GHz and even.

OMUX

(n-1) n

Transmit
Amplifier
(TXA)

Optical Amplifier
Where do we require Optical Amps ?
a) Booster/Post Amp
Boosts the signal at Transmitter end to compensate
relatively low output power of laser transmitters
b) Line Amp
Used at regular intervals to compensate fiber
transmission loss
c) Pre Amp
Boosts signal prior to Optical detectors to increase the
Rx sensitivity

Optical Amplifier

Tx

Rx

Tx

Rx

Tx

Booster/Post Amplifier

Preamplifier

Rx

Line
amplifier

Optical Amp
Erbium Doped Fiber Amp (EDFA)
1) EDFA Characteristics:
EDFA changed the WDM world
One device amplifies all the Wavelengths & hence
extended distance between Regenerators
It is simply an Optical Amp
Supports both C-Band & L-Band

EDFA
Does not reshape or retime the signal
Does not correct Dispersion
Amp gain is not constant for all Wavelengths
Gain profile depends on input Wavelengths
& signal power
Gain Flattening
Art of getting equal amount of amplification over a
Range of Wavelengths

Optical Amps
EDFA Operation:
Erbium is a rare metallic earth element that is used to
amplify light signals sent along fiber optic cable
When Erbium is doped to a fiber optic material like glass,
and light is pumped through it at 980/1480nm, result is
An EDFA
If photon of light in 1550nm range collide with excited
electrons, the electrons give off photons of the same
Wavelength, same phase & direction as the original photon

EDFA

OADM
In general, not all transmission channels have the same
start & destination
Hence A special type of Mux is designed called
Optical Add/Drop Mux
With an Add/drop facility, new channels can be added to
& others can be dropped off the transmission link
This Add/Drop function is completely in Optical form

OADM

Regenerator
Regenerator is nothing but an Amplifier, with addition of
3R function
Since noise level also amplifies along with original signal
in an ordinary amplifier, it requires to supress this noise
at intermediate stations
No need to convert the original signal in to electrical form
while regeneration
Regeneration requires at every 600kms distance

Amplifier Vs Regenerator

What is 3R generation ?

Re-amplification 1R
Boost up the received weak signals to transmit further
It is done by Optical Amps

Re-shaping 2R
Correcting noise & dispersion
Remove noise from a digital signal & shape it in to
clear 1s & 0s
Done by DCF & OEO

Re-timing 3R
Synchronizing with Network clock
Adjusting the precise location of 1s & 0s in a detected
signal in order to match them to the bit rate of system
By using PLL & optical clock recovery

Here is a list of parameters to be considered for a Optical Link Budget:

Find out the Route Distance d between Node A & Node B & Consider 3% excess of this distance

for bends & loops , of this Distance d. The New Distance = D in Kms
Choose the Optimal Drum Length of OFC in case the distances are more viz a Backbone Case
Understand how many Splices N are expected between both nodes over the distance D
In Case of Backbone it is for every 3.85 Kms
In Case of access it is for every 280 Mtrs.
Choose Fiber type G.652 or G.655. At Present TTL has G.652 Fibers live in its network both on BB
Choose Laser Wavelength window based on application
Backbone since D is always more than 50 Kms, 1550 nm Window is chosen
Access Since D is always less than 30 Kms, 1310 nm Window is chosen

Assumptions:
Loss per Km @ 1310 nm Operation on a G.652 Fiber = 0.4 dB = LF
Loss per Km @ 1550 nm Operation on a G.652 Cable = 0.22 dB = LF
No. of Splices between 2 Nodes = N( N=1+ (D/0.280) for access & N=1+(D/3.85) for BB Networks)
Average Splice Loss LN = 0.05 dB per splice
Optical Penalty due to dispersion (Applicable practically to Backbone systems only) = LD = 2 dB Max
Insertion Loss of Fiber optic Patch cords per hop = L I = 1 dB Max.
No. of Cuts expected to happen per year (applicable for Backbone) = 2 Nos
Life period of the OFC = 20 Years
Total Losses expected between 2 Stations on Fiber over a period of 20 Years = LT
LT = LN*N + LF*D + 0.05*2*20 + LD + L I
LT = LN*N + LF*D + 5 dB

Example of a Backbone Link Budget:

Route Distance between Both Stations = d = 80 kms
Wavelength of Operation = 1550 nM
Fiber Cable Type G.652
OFC Distance = D = 80*1.03 = 82.4 Kms
No. of Splices = N = 1+ (D/3.85) = 1+ (82.4/3.85) = 1+ 22 = 23
Total Losses on OFC LT = LN*N + LF*D + 5 = 0.05*23 + 0.22*82.4 + 5 = 24.278 dB
Minimum Launch Power = S = -2 dBm (Manufacturer Spec. sheet)
Receiver sensitivity = R = -30 dBm (Manufacturer Spec. Sheet)
S-R Delta = 28 dB
Margin available = S-R Delta LT
Margin available = 28 24.5 = 3.5 dB (Even after considering @ 2 Cuts per year between nodes)

Example of a Access Link Budget:

Route Distance between Both Stations = d = 20 kms
Wavelength of Operation = 1310 nM
Fiber Cable Type G.652
OFC Distance = D = 20*1.03 = 20.6 Kms
No. of Splices = N = 1+ (D/0.280) = 1+ (20.6/0.280) = 1+ 73 = 74
Total Losses on OFC LT = LN*N + LF*D + 3(No LD in this case)
= 0.05*74 + 0.40*20.6 + 3 = 14.94 dB
Minimum Launch Power = S = -10 dBm (Manufacturer Spec. sheet)
Receiver sensitivity = R = -30 dBm (Manufacturer Spec. sheet)
S-R Delta = 20 dB
Margin available = S-R Delta LT
Margin available = 20 15 = 5 dB (Even after considering @ 2 Cuts per year between nodes)

Backbone OFC link Budget as per Distances

Section Name

Ongole - Kavali

Actual
Total link
Total Splice
Fiber attenuation in Losses as
lengths dB except
per actual
connector
Lengths &
loss - as per
Design
actual
Criterion
Lengths &
Design
Criterion
81.0

17.8

Total link Equipment S attenuation R dB [w/o

in dB
optical penalty
including
due to
connector dispersion]
loss-as per
Designed
Distances

1.16

Assumptions :
1. Fiber attenuation @ 1550 nm per Km
0.22
2. Av. Splice loss per splice
0.05
3. OFC drum length
4.0
4. Total connetor loss per hop
1
5. Optical penalty due to dispersion (dis. tolerance) 2
6. No. of cuts / 1000 Km / Year
20
7. Total age of OFC
25
8. Net Hop length (for link attenuation) = 3% in excess of actual hop length.

20.0

26

Net
Link
attenuation Margin in
allowed in dB as per
dB [incl.
actual
Dispersion Lengths &
tolerance]
design
criterion

24

4.02

Remarks