Culture methods

Course: B.Sc. Agriculture

Sem II
Subject: Introductory nematology
Unit: 4

Unit-4

Cultural methods (crop rotation, fallowing, soil amendments,

other land management techniques), physical methods (soil
solarisation, hot water treatment) Biological methods, Chemical
methods (fumigants, non fumigants). Resistant varieties. IDM.

Plant parasitic nematodes can be controlled by several

methods. The nematode control aims to improve growth, quality
and yield by keeping the nematode population below the
economical threshold level. The control measures to be adopted
should be profitable and cost effective. It is essential to calculate
the cost benefit ratio before adopting control measures.
The nematode control methods are
1. Regulatory (Legal) control
2. Cultural control
3. Physical control
4. Biological control
5. Chemical control.

Regulatory control
Regulatory control of pests and diseases is the legal enforcement of
measures to prevent them from spreading or having spread, from
multiplying sufficiently to become intolerably troublesome. The
principle involved in enacting quarantine is exclusion of nematodes
from entering into an area which is not infested, in order to avoid spread
of the nematode Quarantine principles are traditionally employed to
restrict the movement of infected plant materials and contaminated soil
into a state or country.
Any countries maintain elaborate organizations to intercept plant shipments
containing nematodes and other pests. Diseased and contaminated plant
material may be treated to kill the nematodes or their entry may be
avoided. Quarantine also prevent the movement of infected plant and
soil to move out to other nematodes free areas.

Plant Quarantine in India

The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (DIP) was passed
by the Government of India which restricts introduction of exotic
pests and disease into the country from abroad. The agricultural
pests and disease acts of the various states prevent interstate spread
of pests within the country. The rules permits the plant protection
advisor to the government of India or any authorizes officer to
undertake inspection and treatments.
Strict regulations have been made against G. rostochiensis, the
potato cyst nematode and Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, the red
ring nematode of coconut. Domestic quarantine regulations have
also been imposed to restrict the movement of potato both for seed
and table purposes in order to present the spread of potato cyst
nematode from Tamil Nadu to other states in India.

Cultural Control
Cultural nematode control methods are agronomical practices
employed in order to minimize nematode problem in the crops.
Selection of healthy seed material
In plants, propagated by vegetative means we can eliminate
nematodes by selecting the vegetative part from healthy plants.
The golden nematode of potato, the burrowing, spiral and lesion
nematodes of banana can be eliminated by selecting nematode
free plant materials. The wheat seed gall nematode and rice white
tip nematode can be controlled by using nematode free seeds.

 Adjusting the time of planting

Nematode life cycle depends on the climatic
factors. Adjusting the time of planting helps to
avoid nematode damage. In some cases crops
may be planed in winter when soil temperature
is low and at that time the nematodes cannot be
active at low temperature. Early potatoes and
sugar beets grow in soil during cold season and
escapes cyst nematode damage since the
nematodes are not that much active, to cause
damage to the crop during cold season.
Fallowing
Leaving the field without cultivation,
preferably after ploughing helps to expose the
nematodes to sunlight and the nematodes die
due to starvation without host plant. This
method is not economical.

Deep summer ploughing

During the onset of summer, the
infested field is ploughed with disc
plough and exposed to hot sun, which in
turn enhances the soil temperature and
kills the nematodes. For raising small
nursery beds for vegetable crops like
tomato and brinjal seed beds can be
prepared during summer, covered with
polythene sheets which enhances soil
temperature by 5 to 10C which kills the
nematodes in the seed bed. This method
is very effective and nematode free
seedling can be raised by soil solarization
using polythene sheets.

Manuring
Raising green manure crops and addition of more
amount of farm yard manure, oil cakes of neem and
castor, pressmud and poultry manure etc enriches the
soil and further encourages the development of
predacious nematodes like mononchus spp. and also
other nematode antagonistic microbs in the soil
which checks the parasitic nematodes in the filed.
Flooding
Flooding can be adopted where there is an
enormous availability of water. Under submerged
conditions, anaerobic condition develops in the soil
which kills the nematodes by asphyxiation.
Chemicals lethal to nematodes such as hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia are released in flooded
condition which kills the nematodes.

Trap cropping
Two crops are grown in the field, out
of which one crops is highly susceptible
to the nematode. The nematode attacks
the susceptible crop. By careful
planning, the susceptible crop can be
grown first and then removed and burnt.
Thus the main crop escapes from the
nematode damage. Cowpea is highly
susceptible crop can be grown first and
then removed and burnt. Cowpea is
highly susceptible to root-knot nematode
and the crop can be destroyed before the
nematodes mature.

Cowpea

Antagonistic crops
Certain crops like mustard,
marigold and neem etc have
chemicals or alkaloids as root
exudates which repell or suppress the
plant parasitic nematodes. In
marigold (Tagetes spp.) plants the
terthinyl and bithinyl compounds are
present throughout the plant from
root to shoot tips. This chemical kills
the nematodes. In mustard allyl
isothiocyanate and in pangola grase
pryrocaterchol are present which
kills the nematodes. Such enemy
plants can be grown along with main
crop or included in crop rotation

Removal and destruction of infected plants

Early detection of infested plants and removal helps to
reduce nematode spread. After harvest the stubbles of infested
plants are to be removed. In tobacco, the root system is left in
the field after harvest. This will serve as a inoculum or the next
season crops. Similarly in D. angstus the nematode remains in
the left out stubbles in the field after harvest of rice grains. Such
stubbles are to be removed and destroyed and land needs to be
ploughed to expose the soil.

Use of resistant varieties

Nematode resistant varieties have been reported from time to
time in different crops. Use of resistant varieties is a very
effective method to avoid nematode damage. Nemared,
Nematex, Hisar Lalit and Atkinson are tomato varieties resistant
to M. incogntia . The potato variety Kufri swarna is resistant to
G. rostochiensis.

Physical control
It is very easy to kill the nematodes in laboratory by exposing the
nematodes to heat, irradiation and osmotic pressure etc., but it is
extremely difficult to adopt these methods in field conditions. These
physical treatments maybe hazardous to plant or the men working
with the treatments and the radiation treatments may have residual
effects
Heat treatment of soil
Sterilization of soil by allowing steam is a practice in soil used in
green house, seed beds and also for small area cultivation. Insects,
weed seeds, nematodes, bacteria and fungi are killed by steam
sterilization. In such cases steam is introduced into the lower level of
soil by means of perforated iron pipes buried in the soil. The soil
surface needs to be covered during steaming operation. Plastic sheets
are used for covering. In the laboratory and for pot culture
experiments autoclaves are used to sterilize the soil.

Soil solarisation

Hot water treatment of planting material

Hot water treatment is commonly used for controlling
nematodes. Prior to planting the seed materials such as banana
corms, onion bulbs, tubers seeds and roots of seedlings can be
dipped in hot water at 5 0 - 55 C for 10 minutes and then planted.
Irradiation
Irradiation also kills the nematode. Cysts of G. rostochiensis
exposed to 20,000 contained only dead eggs and at 40, 000
exposure, the eggs lost their contents. Ditylenchus myceliphagus in
mushroom compost exposed to rays between 48,000 to 96,000
inactivated the nematodes. UV light also kill the nematodes. But
these irradiation is not practically feasible under field conditions.

Osmotic pressure
Feder (1960) reported 100% nematode mortality when sucrose or
dextrose were added to nematode infested soil @ 1 to 5% by weight. But
these methods are not practical and economical.

Washing process
Plant parasitic nematodes are often spread by soil adhering to potato
tubers, bulbs and other planting materials. Careful washing of such planting
material helps to avoid the nematodes in spreading in new planting field.
Washing apparatus for cleaning potato and sugarbeet tubers are
commercially developed and are being used in many countries.

Seed cleaning
Modern mechanical seed cleaning methods have been developed remove
the seed galls from normal healthy wheat seeds.

Biological control
Predacious Nematodes:
Predacious nematodes have specialized open stoma armed with
teeth to catch and swallow the plant parasitic nematodes. Addition of
organic amendments helps to encourage the multiplication of
predacious nematodes such as Mononchus spp. Other genera like
Diplogaster spp. and Tripyla spp. are also come under the group of
predacious nematodes.
Predacious Fungi:
Most of the predacious fungi comes under Moniliales and
Pjycomycetes. There are two types of predacious activities among
these fungi. They are nematode
a) Trapping fungi and
b) Endozoic fungi

a. Trapping fungi:
The nematode trapping fungi have adhesive networks and sticky
knobs produced by the mycelium to capture the plant parasitic
nematodes. The nematode trappers are grouped as follows.
Sticky branches:
The fungal mycelia have short lateral branches and they
anastomose to form loops. The nematode trapped in this loops.
Sticky networks:
The mycelium curls around and anastomoses with similar
branches. These loops produce complex three dimensional
structures. The adhesive surface of network helps to hold the
nematode e.g. Arthrobotrys spp.

Sticky knob:
Small spherical or sub spherical lobes are present on one or two
celled lateral hyphae. Only the terminal knob is sticky to hold the
nematodes e.g. Monacrosporium ellipsospora.
Constricting ring:
The short hyphal branch curls back on itself and anastomoses and
forming a ring. When the nematode enters the ring and contact the
inner walls of the ring cells bulge inward filling the lumen of the ring
and kills the nematode e.g. M. bembicoidesd and Dactylaria
brachophaga.

Non-constricting rings: The trap is formed similar to the

constricting ring. The ring becomes an infective structure and kills
the nematode e.g. Daclyaria candida.
In addition to formation of traps and adhesive secretions, the
predacious fungi may also produce toxin which kill the nematodes.
b) Endozoic fungi:
The endozoic fungi usually enter the nematode by a germ tube
that penetrates the cuticle from a sticky spore. The fungal hyphae
ramify throughout the nematode body, absorb the contents and
multiply. The hyphae then emerge from dead nematode. Catenaria
vermicola often attacks sugarcane nematodes.

Parasitic fungi:
Paecilomyces lilacinus in an effective egg parasite on many
nematodes. The parasitic fungus is particularly effective against
Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Rotylenchulus and Tylenchulus. The
fungus attacks the eggs as they are deposited in groups as a
mass. The parasitic fungus was found to be effective against
potato cyst nematode, root-knot nematodes in tomato, brinjal,
betel vine and banana and T. semipenetrans in citrus.

Bacteria:
Recent studies have shown the influence of introduced
microbial antagonist in controlling the plant parasitic
nematodes. Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluroscens has
been found to reduce the cyst nematode, H. cajani in cowpea.
The rhizobacteria viz., Bacillus cereus, Burkholderia cepacia
and P. fluroscens were found to be effective against M.
incognita in tomato and banana.

Nematicide:
Nematicide is defined as a substance or mixture of substances
used for killing, repelling, or otherwise preventing the plant
parasitic nematodes.
Kuhn (1881) first tested CS2 to control sugar beet nematode in
Germany and he could not get encouraging results.
Bessey (1911) test CS2 for the control of root-knot nematodes
later formaldehyde, cynide, quicklime.
Mathews (1919) chloropicrin (test gas) against plant parasitic
nematode in England.
In 1944, scientists from California and Florida states of USA
reported the efficacy of EDB, DD paved way for chemical
control.

Important Nematicides
1) Ethylene di bromide (EDB):
1,2-Dibromomethane, colourless liquid, gas in non-inflammable, 83%
liquid formulation containing 1.2 kg a.i/lit and 35% granules. Use:
It is injected/ dibbed into soil @ 60-120 liter or 200 kg ai/ha
Toxic- Cyst nematode/fungi. Crop like onion, garlic and other bulb
should not be planted after soil treatment with EDB. Trade Name:
Bromofume and Dowfume.

2) Di bromo chloro propane (DBCP):

1,2- Dibromo-3-Chloropropane, straw coloured liquid BP 1950C, 1
liter of weighing 1.7 kg. Use: Soil treatment before planting, at the
time of planting, post-plant treatment, effective when soil
temperature is above 200C, sprinkled or mixed with irrigation
water. Recommended dose: 10-60 lit/ha. Trade Name: Nemagone,
Fumazone.

3) DD mixture:
Trade name of the mixture of compound, cis and trans isomers of 1,3Dichloropropane 30-35% + 1,2-dichloropropane other are few
chlorinated 5%, black liquids of 100% formulation, 1 liter of weighing
1 kg technical, inject up to the depth of 15-20 cm at 25 X 30 cm
spacing. Use: 225-280 lit/ha. Trade Name: Dibromomethane, Dorlone.

4) Methyl bromide or Bromomethane:

Boil at 4.50C gas is heavy 1.5 time than air, insecticidal properties were
described by Le Goupil in 1932. Store grain pest it is used 24-32 g/m3
exposure period 48 hrs. Termite/wood beetle @ 32-64 g/m3,
fumigation of live plant @ 16-32 g/m3. Application of nematode/
insect @ 4-7 ml/ft2. It also kills the rodents, insects, fungi and weeds
in the soil, highly dangerous to warm blooded animals.

5) Chloropicrin or Trichloroditromethane:
It is the tear gas, non-inflamable, good penetrating effect.
Recommended dose: 16-48 g/m3. It is in control of nematode/ insect
in soil. Trade Name: Acquinite and Pic fume.
6) Fensulfothion:
It is systemic nematicides, effective against golden nematode in
Nilgiri hills. Trade Name: Dasanit, Terracur.
7) Fenamiphos:
Systemic nematicide, effective on root-knot nematode and cyst
nematodes, 1-5 % granules. Trade Name: Nemacur 40 EC.

8) Ethoprop: Systemic, effective against juvenile nematode. Trade Name:

Mocap.
9) Phorate: Trade name Thimet 10% granules, fumigant action.
10)Metham sodium: Sodium N-methyldithiopcarbamate, Trade Name:
Vapam, Sistan, Vitafume and Unifume, Recommended dose 100-200
ml/m2 injected in to soil.
11) Aldicarb: 2-methyl-2 (methylthio) Trade name is Temik, the sulphur
atom in the molecule is oxidized to sulfoxide and then to sulfone, it is a
systemic, 10% granule, 30-35 days remain residual in plant.

12) Carbofuran:
Trade name Furdan, it is systemic insecticide cum nematicide. It is
formulated as 3% granule residual effect 30-60 days, got phototonic
effect, acropetal action applied @ 1-2 kg ai/ha.
13) Methomyl:
It is effective against insects, mites and nematodes, Trade name is
Lannate.
14)Oxamyl:
Carbomate) 40% EC systemic, effective against foliar nematode,
Trade name Vydate.

Resistant varieties
The use of resistant varieties provide an effective, economical and friendly
means of nematode control.
Crop varieties identified/developed resistant to plant parasitic nematodes

Crop Nematode Resistant varieties

Tomato-- Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica / M. incognita)-PNR-7, NT-3, NT-12,
Hisar Lalit
Chilli-- Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica / M. incognita)--NP-46A, Pusa Jwala,
Mohini
Cowpea-- Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica / M. incognita)-GAU-1
Mungbean-- Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica / M. incognita)--ML-30 and ML62
Cotton-- Meloidogyne incognita --Bikaneri nerma, Sharda, Paymaster
Grapevine --Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica / Meloidogyne incognita)-Khalili, Kishmish Beli, Banquabad, Cardinal, Early Muscat, Loose Perlett
Potato -- Potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis) -Kufri Swarna, Kufri Giriraj

IDM
For Nursery (Transplanted crops): Keep nursery area fallow (2-3 months)
Deep summer ploughing (2-3 ) April-May
Grow non-host or antagonistic crops
Soil solarization- 100 gauge LLDPE for 20 days
Follow rabbing at 7 kg(husk)/m3
Use resistant varieties
Green manuring with sunhemp
Use bioagents like P. lilacinus, T. viride,T. plus, P. fluorescens at
10 to 20 g/m2
Use effective nematicides like carbofuran 3 G or phorate 10 G at 1
to 2 kg a.i. /ha

For Field Crops: Keep the field fallow (2-3 months)

Deep summer ploughing (2-3) April-May
Flooding (2-3 months)
Crop rotation
Field sanitation
Healthy planting material
Resistant varieties
Green manuring with sunhemp
Grow trap crop, non-host or antagonistic crops
Inter or mixed crops with marigold

Use FYM or compost at 20-25 t/ha

Use non-edible oil cakes at 1 to 2 t/ha
Use bioagents like P. lilacinus, P. fluoreascens, T. plus, T. viride at
5 kg/ha
Seed treatment with carbosulfan 25 DS at 3 % w/w
Seedling root dip with carbolsulfan 25 EC at 0.05 % for 4 to 6
hours.
Seed soaking with carbonsulfan 25 EC at 0.05 % for 12 hours.
Soil application of carbolfuran 3G, phorate 10 G at 2 to 4 kg a.i./ha.

Web references:
1. http://agridr.in/tnauEAgri/eagri50/PATH172/lec13.pdf
2. http://www.agri.kkwagh.edu.in/Theory%20N/ENTO-364.pdf

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