Chapter 3:

Plasticity

Tests for Mechanical Strength of Materials

Common tests used to determine the monotonic strength of metals. (a) Uniaxial
tensile test.
(b) Upsetting test. (c) Three-point bending test. (d) Plane-strain tensile test. (e)
Plane-strain
compression (Ford) test. (f) Torsion test. (g) Biaxial test.

Mechanical Testing: Servohydraulic Machine

A servohydraulic
universal testing
machine linked to
a computer.
(Courtesy of MTS
Systems Corp.)

Stress-Strain Curves at Different Heat Treatments

Stressstrain
curves for
AISI 1040 steel
subjected to
different heat
treatments; curves
obtained from
tensile tests.

Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curve

Idealized shapes of
uniaxial stress
strain curve. (a)
Perfectly plastic. (b)
Ideal
elastoplastic. (c)
Ideal elastoplastic
with linear workhardening. (d)
Parabolic workhardening ( =
o + Kn).

Plasticity
Ludwik-Hollomon equation

Voce equation

Johnson-Cook equation

True Stress and True Strain Curve

Schematic
representation of
the change in
Poissons ratio as
the deformation
regime changes
from elastic to
plastic.

Stress-Strain Curve

True- and
engineeringstressstrain
curves
for AISI 4140 hotrolled steel. R.
A. is reduction in
area.

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

Engineering- (or nominal-) stressstrain

curves (a) without and (b) with a yield
point.

Tensile tests

Tensile specimen being tested; arrows show

onset of necking.

Work hardening vs. Strain

Log d/d versus log

for stainless steel

AISI 302.
(Adapted with
permission from A.
S. de S. e Silva and
S. N. Monteiro,
Metalurgia-ABM, 33 (1977)
417.)

Necking
Correction factor
for
necking as a
function of strain in
neck, ln(A0/A),
minus strain at
necking, u.
(Adapted with
permission from W.
J. McGregor
Tegart, Elements of
Mechanical
Metallurgy (New
York: MacMillan,
1964), p. 22.)

Stressstrain curves for Fe

0.003% C alloy wire,
deformed to increasing
strains by drawing; each
curve is started at the
strain corresponding to the
prior
wire-drawing reduction.
(Courtesy of H. J. Rack)

Strain Rate Effects

(a) Effect of strain

rate
on the stress
strain curves for
AISI 1040 steel. (b)
Strain-rate
changes during
tensile test. Four
strain rates are
shown: 101,
102, 103, and
104 s1.

Plastic Deformation in Compressive Testing

(a) Compression
specimen between
parallel platens.
(b) Length
inhomogeneity in
specimen.

Stress-Strain Curve for Compression

(a) Stressstrain
(engineering and
true) curves for
7030 brass in
compression. (b)
Change of shape of
specimen and
barreling.

Finite Element Method

(a) Distortion of Finite Element

Method (FEM) grid after 50%
reduction in
height h of specimen under stickingfriction conditions. (Reprinted with
permission from H. Kudo and S.
Matsubara, Metal Forming Plasticity
(Berlin: Springer, 1979),p. 395.) (b)
Variation in pressure on surface of
cylindrical specimen being
compressed.

Bauschunger Effect

The Bauschinger effect.

Ratio of compressive
flow stress (0.2% plastic strain) and
tensile flow stress at different
levels of plastic strain for different
steels. (After B. Scholtes, O.
Vohringer, and E. Macherauch,
Proc. ICMA6, Vol. 1 (New York:
Pergamon, 1982), p. 255.)

Plastic Deformation of Polymers

Schematic of the
different types of stressstrain
curves in a polymer.

Effect of strain rate

and temperature on stress
strain curves.

Glassy Polymers

Schematic of necking
and drawing in a semicrystalline polymer.

Neck Propagation in Polyethylene

(a) Neck propagation

in a sheet of linear
polyethylene.
(b) Neck formation and
propagation in a
specimen, shown in
schematic fashion.

Metallic Glasses

Plastic Deformation of Glasses

Compression
stressstrain curves
for
Pd77.5CU6Si16.5.
(Adapted with
permission from C. A.
Pampillo and H. S.
Chen, Mater. Sci.
Eng., 13 (1974) 181.)

Shear Steps

Shear steps
terminating inside
material after
annealing at
250C/h, produced
by (a) bending and
decreased by (b)
unbending. Metglas
Ni82.4Cr7Fe3Si4.5B
3.1 strip. (Courtesy
of X. Cao and J. C.
M. Li.)

Dislocations
(a) Gilman model of
dislocations in
crystalline and
glassy silica,
represented by
two-dimensional
arrays of polyhedra.
(Adapted from J. J.
Gilman, J. Appl.
Phys. 44 (1973)
675) (b) Argon
model of
displacement fields
of atoms (indicated
by magnitude and
direction of lines)
when
assemblage of
atoms is subjected
to shear strain of 5
102, in
molecular dynamics
computation.
(Adapted from D.
Deng, A. S.
Argon, and S. Yip,
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Lond. A329 (1989)
613.)

Viscosity of Glass

Viscosity of
sodalimesilica glass and of
metallic glasses (AuSiGe,
PdCuSi, PdSi, C0P) as a
function of normalized
temperature. (Adapted from J. F.
Shakelford, Introduction to Materials
Science for Engineers, 4th ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1991), p. 331, and F. Spaepen
and D. Turnbull in Metallic Glasses,
ASM.) 1P=0.1 Pa s.

Viscosity of three
glasses as a function of
temperature. 1 P=0.1 Pa s.

Rankine, Tresca, and von Mises

Maximum-stress Criterion

Maximum-Shear-Stress Criterion

Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion

Comparison of the Rankine, von Mises, and Tresca

(a) Comparison of the

Rankine, von Mises, and Tresca
criteria. (b) Comparison of
failure
criteria with test. (Reprinted
with
permission from E. P. Popov,
Mechanics of Materials, 2nd ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1976), and G.
Murphy, Advanced. Mechanics
of
Materials (New York: McGrawHill,
1964), p. 83.)

Displacement of the Yield Locus

Displacement of the
yield locus as the flow stress of the
material due to plastic
deformation. (a) Isotropic
hardening. (b) Kinematic
hardening.

Tensile and Compressive Strength of Al2O3

Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

Griffith Failure Criterion

McClintock-Walsh Crtierion

Failure Criteria for Brittle Material

(a) Simple model for solid with cracks. (b) Elliptical flaw in elastic
solid subjected to compression loading. (c) Biaxial fracture
criterion for brittle materials initiated from flaws without (Griffith)
and with (McClintock and Walsh) crack friction.

von Mises Ellipse

Translation of von
Mises ellipse for a polymer due to
the presence of hydrostatic stress.
(a) No hydrostatic stress, (b) with
hydrostatic stress.

Shear Yielding and Crazing for Amorphous Polymer

Envelopes defining
shear yielding and crazing for an
amorphous polymer under biaxial
stress. (After S. S. Sternstein and L.
Ongchin, Am. Chem. Soc., Div. of
Polymer Chem., Polymer Preprints, 10
(1969), 1117.)

Failure Envelope

Failure envelope for unidirectional E-glass/epoxy composite under biaxial

loading at different levels of shear stress. (After I. M. Daniel and O. Ishai,
Engineering Mechancis of Composite Materials (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1994), p. 121.)

Plane-Stress Yield Loci for Sheets with Planar Isotropy

Plane-stress yield loci

for sheets with planar isotropy or
textures that are rotationally
symmetric about the thickness
direction, x3. (Values of R indicate
the degree of anisotropy =
2/1.)

Hardness for Steel

Hardness Tests

Comparison of the impression sizes produced by various hardness tests on

material of 750 HV. BHN = Brinell hardness number, HRC = Rockwell hardness
number on C scale, HRN = Rockwell hardness number on N scale, VPN = Vickers
hardness number. (Adapted with permission from E. R. Petty, in Techniques of Metals
Research, Vol. 5, Pt. 2, R. F. Bunshah, ed. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1971), p. 174.)

Impression

Impression caused by
spherical indenter on metal plate.

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Procedure in using
Rockwell hardness tester.
(Reprinted with permission from
H. E. Davis, G. E. Troxel, and C. T.
Wiscocil, The Testing and Inspection
of Engineering Materials, (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1941), p. 149.)

Vickers Hardness Test

Relationships Between Yield Stress and Hardness

Hardness Distance Profile

(a) Hardnessdistance
profiles near a grain boundary in
zinc with 100-atom ppm of Al and
zinc with 100-atom ppm of Au
(1-gf load). (b) Solute
concentration dependence of
percent excess boundary
hardening in zinc containing Al, Au,
or Cu (3-gf load). (Adapted with
permission from K. T. Aust, R. E.
Hanemann, P. Niessen, and J. H.
Westbrook, Acta Met., 16 (1968)
291.)

Knoop Indenter

Some of the details of

the Knoop indenter, together with
its impression.

Nanoindenter apparatus

A schematic of a
nanoindenter apparatus.

Topographic Feature of the Berkovich Indentation

An impression made
by means of Berkovich indenter in
a copper sample. (From Deng,
Koopman, Chawla, and Chawla,
Acta Mater., 52 (2004) 4291.) (a)
An atomic force micrograph,
which shows very nicely the
topographic features of the
indentation on the sample surface.
The scale is the same along the
three axes. (b) Berkovich
indentation as seen in an SEM.

Load vs. Indentation Displacement

A schematic
representation of load vs.
indenter
displacement.

Simple Formability Tests for Sheets

Simple formability
tests for sheets. (a) Simple bending
test. (b) Free-bending test. (c)
Olsen cup test. (d) Swift cup test.
(e) Fukui conical cup test.

Plastic Anisotropy

Ears formed in
deep-drawn cups due to in-plane
anisotropy. (Courtesy of Alcoa,
Inc.)

Fibering

Effect of fibering on formability. The bending operation is often an integral

part of sheet-metal forming, particularly in making flanges so that the part can be
attached to another part. During bending, the fibers of the sheet on the outer side of
the bend are under tension, and the inner-side ones are under compression.
Impurities
introduced in the metal as it was made become elongated into stringers when the
metal is rolled into sheet form. During bending, the stringers can cause the sheet to
fail
by cracking if they are oriented perpendicular to the direction of bending (top). If
they
are oriented in the direction of the bend (bottom), the ductility of the metal remains
normal. (Adapted with permission from S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh, Sci. Am., Nov.
(1976), p. 100.)

Punch-Stretch Test

Sheet specimen
subjected to punchstretch test
until necking; necking can be seen
by the clear line. (Courtesy of S. S.
Hecker)

Punch-Stretch Test

Schematic of sheet
deformed by punch stretching. (a)
Representation of strain
distribution: 1, meridional strains;
2, circumferential strains; h, cup
height. (b) Geomety of deformed
sheet.

Forming-Limit Curve

Construction of a
forming-limit curve (or
KeelerGoodwin diagram).
(Courtesy of S. S. Hecker.)

Different Strain Patterns in Stamped Part

Different strain
patterns in stamped part. (Adapted
from W. Brazier, Closed Loop, 15,
No. 1 (1986) 3.)

Stress vs. Strain Rate for Slow-Twitch and Fast Twitch Muscles

Strength of Biological Materials

Stressstrain response
fore a number of biological
materials.

Stress-Strain Response of Elastin

Stressstrain response
for elastin; it is the ligamentum
nuchae of cattle (Adapted from Y.
C. Fung and S. S. Sobin, J. Biomech.
Eng., 1103 (1981) 121. Also in Y.
C. Fung, Biomechanics: Mechanica
properties of Living Tissues
(NewYork: Springer, 1993) p. 244.)

Stress-Strain Response of Cortical Bone

Tensile and
compressive stressstrain curves
for cortical bone in longitudinal
and transverse directions.
(Adapted from G. L. Lucas, F. W.
Cooke, and E. A. Friis, A Primer on
Biomechanics (New York: Springer,
1999).)

Strain Rate Response of Cortical Bone

Strain-rate
dependence of tensile response of
cortical bone. (Adapted from J. H.
McElhaney, J. Appl. Physiology,
21(1966) 1231.)