Transducers

Instrumentation &
Measurement

Need for Sensors

Sensors are universal. They are
embedded in our bodies,
automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants,
industrial plants and countless other
applications.
Without the use of sensors, there
would be no automation !!

Terminology
Transducers convert one form of energy into another
Sensors/Actuators are input/output transducers
Sensors can be passive (e.g. change in resistance)
or active (output is a voltage or current level)
Sensors can be analog (e.g. thermocouples) or
digital (e.g. digital tachometer)

Sensor

Actuator
3

Transducer types
Quantity
being
Measured

Input Device
(Sensor)

Output Device
(Actuator)

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR), Lights & Lamps, LED's

Light Level
Photodiode, Phototransistor,
& Displays, Fiber
Solar Cell
Optics
Thermocouple, Thermistor,
Temperatur
Heater, Fan, Peltier
Thermostat, Resistive
e
Elements
temperature detectors (RTD)
Lifts & Jacks,
Force/Press Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch,
Electromagnetic,
ure
Load Cells
Vibration
Potentiometer, Encoders,
Motor, Solenoid, Panel
Position
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch,
Meters
LVDT
Tacho-generator,
AC and DC Motors,
4
Speed
Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler,
Stepper Motor, Brake

Choosing a Sensor

Application
Transducers are used in various fields of industry
&research
They are mainly used in measurement of electrical&
mechanical properties of different material
In industry transducers are used in measuring
&controlling various parameters in a process or
product

TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device which converts energy from
one form to another
A transducer performs the following functions in
instrumentation
A)Detects the presence , magnitude & changes in a
physical quantity being measured
B ) Provides a proportional electrical output signal

Active transducers :-These

transducers generate their own
signal when subject to
measurement
e.g.
1) Piezo electric transducer
2) Photo voltaic cell
3) Thermocouples

Passive transducers :These are called as externally

powered transducers. They
don't generate their own signal
but require a secondary power
source for energy conversion
e.g.
1)Thermistors
2)LVDT
3) RTD

Selection Parameters
To select the right transducer requires careful
consideration of each of the following specification

Sensitivity:
Must be greater enough for the best resolution of the system

Range
Respond over minimum to maximum values of the parameters

Physical Properties
Method of mounting, protecting and shielding its electrical connections must be
considered

Loading Effects and Distortion

Must be certain that transducer will not significantly distort or load down the
measured quantity

Frequency Response
Respond to the maximum rate of change of the phenomena

Electrical Output Format

The form of the output signal must be compatible with the rest of the measuring
system

Output Impedance
Output impedance must be compatible

 Power Requirement
Proper supply voltage/voltages must be provided for externally powered
devices

Noise
Output signal from transducer should be as for as possible, unaffected by
noise

Accuracy or Error
Ensure that quoted specifications for which the transducer is required must
be applicable.

Calibration
The properties of many transducer can drift with time and aging, this must
be compensated for by periodic recalibration.

Environment
Performance can be critically affected by such environmental factors as
temperature, humidity, and dust.

Cost
In general, you get what you pay for. Judge according to your requirements.

Temperature Sensor
Temperature sensors appear in building,
chemical process plants, engines,
appliances, computers, and many other
devices that require temperature monitoring
Many physical phenomena depend on
temperature, so we can often measure
temperature indirectly by measuring
pressure, volume, electrical resistance, and
strain

Types of temperature
sensors
RTD (Resistance Temperature
Detector)
Thermistor
Thermocouple

Resistance temperature
detectors
(RTD)
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) accurately

sense temperature with an excellent degree of

repeatability and interchangeability of elements.
The RTD is composed of certain metallic elements
whose change in resistance is a function of
temperature.
In operation, a small excitation current is passed
across the element, and the voltage, which is
proportional to resistance, is then measured and
converted to units of temperature calibration.
The RTD element is manufactured by winding a wire
(wire wound elements) or plating a film (thin film
elements) on a ceramic or glass core and sealing the
element within a ceramic or glass capsule.

RTDs
Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide
temperature range and has excellent stability. Nickel
or nickel alloys are used as well, but they arent as
accurate.
In several common configurations, the platinum wire
is exposed directly to air (called a bird-cage element),
wound around a bobbin and then sealed in molten
glass, or threaded through a ceramic cylinder.
Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or
metal-glass slurry film is deposited onto a ceramic
substrate. The substrate is then etched with a laser.
These RTDs are very small but arent as stable (and
hence accurate).
RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more
expensive than thermocouples.

RTD
How it works:
Utilizes the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.

Make up:
Traditionally made up of
platinum, nickel, iron or
copper wound around an
insulator.

Temperature range:
From about -196C to 482C.
But by selecting the proper
elements and protective
sheathing, RTDs can operate
in a temperature range of (200 to 650) C [-328 to
1202] F.

Thin Film RTD

RTD

RTD
Resistance
temperature
device.

R R 0[1 (T - T0)]

R R0 e

1 1

T
T0

RTD Advantages and

Disadvantages
Advantages:
Stable
Very accurate
Change in
resistance is linear

Disadvantages:
Expensive
Current source
required
Small change in
resistance
Self heating
Less rugged than
thermocouples.

Resistance Measurement
Several different bridge circuits are
used to determine the resistance.
Bridge circuits help improve the
accuracy of the measurements
significantly. Bridge output voltage is
a function of the RTD resistance.

Resistance/Temperature
Conversion
Published equations relating bridge voltage
to temperature can be used.
For very accurate results, do your own
calibration.
Several electronic calibrators are available.
The most accurate calibration that you can do
easily yourself is to use a constant temperature
bath and NIST-traceable thermometers. You
then can make your own calibration curve
correlating temperature and voltage.

Accuracy and Response

Time

Response time is longer than

thermocouples; for a sheath,
response time can easily be 10 s.

Potential Problems
RTDs are more delicate than thermocouples.
An external current must be supplied to the RTD. This
current can heat the RTD, altering the results. For
situations with high heat transfer coefficients, this error
is small since the heat is dissipated to air. For small
diameter thermocouples and still air this error is the
largest. Use the largest RTD possible and smallest
external current possible to minimize this error.
Be careful about the way you set up your measurement
device. Attaching it can change the voltage.
When the platinum is connected to copper connectors,
a voltage difference will occur (as in thermocouples).
This voltage must be subtracted off.

Thermistor, the basics of

How it works:
Like the RTD a
thermistor uses the fact
that resistance of a
metal changes with
temperature.

Make up:
Generally made up of
semiconductor
materials

Temperature Range:
About -45C - 150C
Thermistor

Thermistors
Thermistors also measure the change in resistance
with temperature.
Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times
more than RTDs and 1000 times more than
thermocouples) and can detect very small changes
in temperature. They are also very fast.
Due to their speed, they are used for precision
temperature control and any time very small
temperature differences must be detected.
They are made of ceramic semiconductor material
(metal oxides).
The change in thermistor resistance with
temperature is very non-linear.

Most Thermistors exhibits a negative temperature co-efficient, although

devices having a positive temperature co-efficient are available .

In, general, the output voltage is given by the straight-line equation:

Vo = +/- mT + b
Where, m is slop in volts/C, b is value of To when T = 0, and T is
temperature in C

Thermistor

Thermistor

Thermistor Advantages and

Disadvantages
Advantages:
Very sensitive (has
the largest output
change from input
temperature)
Quick response
More accurate than
RTD and
Thermocouples

Disadvantages:
Output is a nonlinear function
Limited
temperature range.
Require a current
source
Self heating
Fragile

Magnetic-Induction
Transducers
When a permanent magnet is
mounted within a coil of wire, any
movement of the magnet with respect
to the coil induces a voltage across
the coil. This is the principle used in
the magnetic induction transducer.
The output voltage is the function of
both the rate of flux and the
amplitude of the relative motion.

Electromagnetic Flow Meter

E=BLv
E=Induced EMF
B=Field Strength (Wb/m2)
L= Actual Conductor Length
cutting the field (m)
V=Velocity of the conductor (m/s)

Inductive Transducer

Linear Transformer

Light Sensors
Photovoltaic
light falling on a pnjunction can be used to
generate electricity
from light energy
(as in a solar cell)
small devices used as
sensors are called
photodiodes
fast acting, but the
voltage produced is not
linearly related to light

A typical photodiode

 Photoconductive
such devices do not
produce electricity, but
simply change their
resistance
photodiode (as
described earlier) can
be used in this way to
produce a linear device
phototransistors act like
photodiodes but with
greater sensitivity
light-dependent
resistors (LDRs) are
slow, but respond like
the human eye

A light-dependent resistor
(LDR)

Photo Transistors and Photo

diodes

Electromagnetic radiation, such as light, can

effect the p-n junction characteristics of a
semiconductor device; thus, both diodes and
transistors can be made sensitive to light.
Both are used in fiber optic receivers,
isolators, and light-sensitive relays.
The photodiode is constructed with a
transparent window placed over the p-n
junction, allowing light to fall on the
junction.

 The reverse current flowing in the diode is

directly proportional to the intensity of light.
The response time of photodiode is much
faster than photoconductive cell.
By the addition of an additional p-n junction, a
phototransistor has a sensitivity to light many
times greater than that of diode.
As the light intensity increases , the collector
current increases, causes the transistors
collector to emitter voltage to decrease, and
vice versa.
Consequently, IC is directly and VCE is inversely
proportional to light intensity.

Capacitive Transducers
Most capacitance changing
transducers have one moveable and
one fixed capacitor plate separated
by a nominal distance d
C = k A/d
Where A is area of each plate, k is dielectric
constant, is 8.85x10-12 (F/m) and d is
distance between both plates

Capacitive sensors are noncontact

devices capable of high-resolution
measurement of the position and/or
change of position of any conductive
target. The nanometer resolution of
high-performance capacitive sensors
makes them indispensible in today's
nanotechnology world. They can also be
used to measure the position or other
properties of nonconductive targets