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Replication
Muh. Nasrum Massi
DEPT. MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY,
FAC. MEDICINE, HASANUDDIN
UNIVERSITY,
MAKASSAR
Semiconservative Replication
A. Initiation
Initiation of replication is not a random
process and always begins at the same
position(s) on a DNA molecule, these
points being called the origins of
replication.
A circular bacterial genome has a single
origin of replication, whilest eukaryotic
chromosomes have multiple origins.
Theta replication
Y Replication
DNA Replication
B. Elongation
Enzymes capable of adding successive
nucleotides to a growing DNA strand are called
DNA polymerase.
DNA polymerase requires a template, all use
deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate as their
substrates.
Each successive nucleotide is linked to the
growing chain by a phosphodiester bond
between the phosphate group on its 5 carbon and
the hydroxyl group on the 3 carbon of the previous
nucleotide.
C. Termination
Termination occurs when DNA replication
forks meet one another or run to the end
of a linear DNA molecule.
Also, termination may occur when a
replication fork is deliberately stopped by
a special protein, called a replication
terminator protein, that binds to specific
sites on a DNA molecule
Chromosome
Organization and
Evolution
Muh. Nasrum Massi
DEPT. MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY,
FAC. MEDICINE, HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY,
MAKASSAR
A. Chromosom
Organization
Beside genes containing codes for
protein synthesis (exons), DNA also
contain non-coding proteins like introns,
promoters, and enhancers.
A.1. Exons
An exon is any region of DNA within a
gene that is transcribed to the final
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule,
rather than being spliced out from the
transcribed RNA molecule. Exons of
many eukaryotic genes interleave with
segments of non-coding DNA (introns).
A.2. Introns
Introns are sections of DNA that will be
spliced out after transcription, but before
the RNA is used. Introns are common in
eukaryotic RNAs of all types, but are
found in prokaryotic tRNA and rRNA
genes only.
The number and length of introns varies
widely among species and among genes
within the same species.
A.3. Promoter
a promoter is a DNA sequence that
enables a gene to be transcribed. The
promoter is recognized by RNA
polymerase, which then initiates
transcription. In RNA synthesis,
promoters are a means to demarcate
which genes should be used for
messenger RNA creation - and, by
extension, control which proteins the cell
manufactures.
A.4. Enhancer
an enhancer is a short region of DNA
that can be bound with proteins (namely,
the trans-acting factors, much like a set
of transcription factors) to enhance
transcription levels of genes (hence the
name) in a gene-cluster. An enhancer
does not need to be particularly close to
the genes it acts on, and need not be
located on the same chromosome
B. Chromosome
Evolution
Genomes are dynamic entities that
evolve over time due to the cumulative
effects of small scale sequence
alterations caused by mutation, and
larger scale rearrangements arising from
recombination.
B.1. Mutation
A mutation is a change in the nucleotide
sequence of a short region of a genome.
Many mutations are point mutations that
replace one nucleotide with another.
Other mutation involve insertion or deletion of
one or a few nucleotides.
Mutations result either from errors in DNA
replication or from the damaging effects of
mutagens such as chemicals and radiation that
react with DNA and change the structures of
individual nucleotides.
B.2. Recombination
Recombination results in a restructuring
of part of a genome, for example by
exchange of segments of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis or by
transposition of a mobile element from
one position to another within a
chromosome or between chromosomes.