Bio Olympiad 2016

Respiration

Cell metabolism
(1) Breakdown of carbohydrates
(a) Anaerobic break down (anaerobic respiration) of
glucose: glycolysis
(b) Aerobic break down (aerobic respiration) of
glucose: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative
phosphorylation

Sun as the

ultimate source of
energy
Conversion of light to
chemical energy by
Autotrophs
(photosynthesis in
chloroplasts).
Stored in forms of
carbohydrates and other
organic compounds.
Stored energy harnessed
by cells via respiration.
Released in the form of

ATP

Structure of ATP (energy currency)

adenosine
AMP
ADP
ATP: Adenosine TriPhosphate

 ATP is an Energy Currency - an instant,

readily available energy
So what is the difference between an energy
storage compound and an energy currency?

Energy store

Energy currency

(phosphorylation)

1.2.2 ATP- ADP Cycle

(dephosphorylation)

Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy

Energy is stored in the whole molecule

1.3 Role of ATP

ATP serves as the link between exergonic and
endergonic reactions of a cell.

Exergonic
reaction

Endergonic
reaction

ATP serves as the link between exergonic and

endergonic reactions of a cell.

Exergonic
reaction

Catabolic
reactions

Endergonic
reaction

Anabolic
reactions

What kind of (cellular) work can ATP be used for?

Pg 3

Pg 4

2. Definition of cellular (internal or tissue)

respiration
Respiration is the sequence of enzymecontrolled steps by which chemical energy in
an organic molecule, usually glucose, is
released by oxidation. The energy released is
trapped in the form of ATP.

Respiratory
substrate
e.g. carbohydrate,
protein, fats

Pg 4

2. Definition of cellular (internal or tissue)

respiration
Respiration is the sequence of enzymecontrolled steps by which chemical energy in
an organic molecule, usually glucose, is
released by oxidation. The energy released is
trapped in the form of ATP.
Oxidation can happen via:
Addition of oxygen/
removal of hydrogen
atoms/ removal of
electrons

Energy currency
Gaseous exchange vs
respiration

OXYGEN
2 Types of
Cellular
respiration:

AEROBIC
RESPIRATION

OOXYGEN
N
ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION

Pg 4

2.1 Anaerobic respiration

Absence of oxygen. (pls amend your notes!)

(1) Glycolysis

Pg 4

2.1 Aerobic respiration

with glucose as the respiratory substrate

Overall equation:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2

(1)
Glycolysis

(2) Link
Reaction

+ ATP

6 CO2 + 6 H2O

(3) Krebs
Cycle

(4)

Oxidative
phosphoryla
t-ion

Page 4

1
Glycolysis

2 Link Rxn

4 Oxidative
Phosphorylation

3 Krebs
Cycle

Page 6

Biochemistry of cellular respiration

2.1.1 Glycolysis
sugar to break
- Location: Cytoplasm
- 1 glucose (6C) 2 molecules of pyruvate (3C)
- Formation of ATP and reduced NAD
- Oxygen not required

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/98
34092339/student_view0/chapter7/how_glyc
olysis_works.html

(1)
(1)
Glycolysi
Glycolysi
s
s

(2)
(2) Link
Link
Reaction
Reaction

(3)
(3) Krebs
Krebs
Cycle
Cycle

(4)
(4) OP
OP

Overview

(1)Glycolysi
s

(i)
Phosphory
-lation

(ii) Lysis

(2)
(2) Link
Link
Reaction
Reaction

(iii)
Dehydroge
nation

(3)
(3) Krebs
Krebs
Cycle
Cycle

(4)
(4)
Oxidative
Oxidative
phosphoryla
phosphoryla
t-ion
t-ion

(iv)
Substrate
level
Phosphory
-lation

glycolys
is

(i)

Phosphorylation

() Activates the sugar, raising its energy

level, make it more reactive
() Makes sugar molecule negatively
charged and hence cannot diffuse out of
cell
() From point 2 above, maintains a steep
concentration gradient for glucose to
diffuse into the cell

Glucose (6C)
ATP
ADP

hexokinase

Glucose-6-Phosphate (6C)
Fructose-6-Phosphate (6C)
ATP
ADP

(ii) Lysis

Breaking the phosphorylated 6C sugar

into 2 molecules of 3C sugar phosphates
These 2 molecules are isomers of each
other and hence can be interconverted.

(iii) Oxidation by dehydrogenation

where hydrogen atoms are removed from the
3C sugar and accepted by NAD to form
reduced NAD.

(iv) Substrate level phosphorylation

Synthesis of ATP through direct enzymic
transfer from substrate to ADP.

Phosphofructokinase
(PFK)

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (6C)
2 x Triose phosphate (TP) /
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) (3C)
2Pi

2 NAD
2 reduced NAD

2 x 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate (3C)

2 ADP
2 ATP

2 x 3-phosphoglycerate (GP) (3C)

2 ADP
2 ATP

2 x Pyruvate (3C)

Glycolysis: (i)

Phosphorylation

Hexose

Hexose
bisphosphate

Page 18

Glycolysis: (i)

Phosphorylation

Page 18

Glycolysis: (ii)

Lysis

(iii)
Dehydrogenation

(iii)
Substrate
Substrate
level
level
phosphorylat
phosphoryl

Page 18

Fig. 7.3

Page 5, Figure 5

Nicotinamide
Adenine
Dinucleotide
Coenzyme:
non-protein
component,
loosely
attached to the
enzyme

Fig. 7.3

Nicotinamide
Adenine
Dinucleotide

NAD + 2H+ +2e NADH + H+ or NADH/H+ or

reduced NAD

Substrate level phosphorylation

Page 6

Page 7

(ii) Energy Considerations

Glycolysis
INPUT

OUTPUT

1 molecule of glucose (6C)

2 molecule of pyruvate (3C)

2 ATP

4 ATP

2 NAD

2 reduced NAD (or NADH/H+)

Net gain of ATP = 2

Lecture
notes

Notes: p 8

(1)
(1)
Glycolysi
Glycolysi
s
s

2.1.2 Link Reaction

(2)
(2) Link
Link
Reaction
Reaction

(3)
(3)
Krebs
Krebs
Cycle
Cycle

(4)
(4) OP
OP

Dehydrogenation/
oxidation

decarboxylation
Pyruvate
transporte
d into
matrix of
mitochondi
a by
transport
proteins

Oxidative decarboxylation

Pyruvate
becomes
decarboxylated
along with
formation of
CO2

Resulting 2C
molecule oxidized
via
dehydrogenation.
Formation of
reduced NAD.

2C
molecule
form acetyl
CoA with
coenzyme
A

Energy Considerations

Notes: p 8

Link Reaction
INPUT

OUTPUT

1 molecule of
pyruvate

1 CO2 (waste
product)

OUTPUT per
glucose
molecule
2 CO2 (waste
product)

1 reduced NAD 2 reduced NAD

1 Acetyl CoA

2 Acetyl CoA

Krebs Cycle
Site: Matrix of
mitochondria

Pg 9

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter25/animation__how
_the_krebs_cycle_works__quiz_1_.html

(i) Acetyl CoA (2C) is

accepted by a 4
carbon cpd
(oxaloacetate) to form
a 6carbon cpd
(citrate).

Pg 19

(ii) Citrate
(6C)
decarboxylate
d twice to
give 2x CO2

Key Reactions
(in order)
1.
2.
3.

Decarboxylation
Dehydrogenation
Dephosphorylatio
n

Dehydrogenati
on also occurs
twice, giving
2x reduced
NAD

(i) Acetyl CoA (2C) is

accepted by a 4
carbon cpd
(oxaloacetate) to form
a 6carbon cpd
(citrate).

(iii)Regeneratio
n of
oxaloacetate
(4C) so that
Krebs Cycle can
continue

(ii) Citrate
(6C)
decarboxylate
d twice to
give 2x CO2

Dehydrogenati
on also occurs
twice, giving
2x reduced
NAD

SLP

Energy Considerations
Krebs Cycle
Input

Output

1 molecule of
2 CO2
acetyl CoA

1 ATP

3 reduced
NAD
1 reduced
FAD

Output per glucose

molecule
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 reduced NAD
2 reduced FAD

TAKE
STOCK

Overview:
Stage 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
Site: inner mitochondrial membrane

2.1.4 Oxidative phosphorylation

Page 10

process by which ATP is formed

as protons and electrons are transferred
from reduced NAD and reduced FAD
to oxygen
via a series of electron carriers found on the
inner mitochondrial membrane referred to as
electron transport chain (ETC)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7vHTE6w-50&hl=en-GB&gl=SG
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter25/an
imation__electron_transport_system_and_atp_synthesis__quiz_1_.html

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Pg 20

Series of oxidation and

reduction reactions
Oxidised NAD

A
reduced

Reduced NAD

A
oxidised

B
oxidised
B
Reduced

Oxygen

reduced

C
oxidised

Energy released during electron transfer.

This energy is channeled to build up a
proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.

Water

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Pg 20 Notes Pg 11

1 reduced NAD = 3 ATP

1 reduced FAD = 2 ATP

Proton
Motive
Force

High
[H+]

Electrochemical Gradient

3rd bullet:

Pg 10

Chemiosmosis is :
An energy-coupling mechanism that uses
energy in the form of a proton gradient
across the membrane to drive cellular work
eg. synthesis of ATP
OP serves 2 impt fns:
1) ATP prodn
2) Regenerates oxd NAD and FAD

Overall energy considerations (per

glucose molecule oxidized)

Respirator
y process

Glycolysis
Link
Reaction

Krebs Cycle

Total ATP

Number of ATP
molecules
formed via
substrate level
phosphorylation

2 net
0
1x2
4

Page 12

Number of reduced
hydrogen carrier
molecules formed

Number of ATP
molecules
formed via
oxidative
phosphorylation

Total
number of
ATP
molecules

__
2reduced NAD

2x3=6

__ reduced NAD 2 x 3 = 6
1x2

__ reduced NAD
3x2
__ reduced FAD
1x2

24

----------

6 x 3 = 18
2x2=4

34

38

Energy conversion efficiency

Energy released from complete oxidation of glucose
= 2900 kJ mol -1
Energy required for the formation of ATP from ADP
and Pi = 30.5 kJ mol -1
Efficiency of conversion =

38 x 30.5
2900

X 100%

= 40 %
Why is the efficiency so low?
1) Inefficiency of the coupling process.
2) Some energy is still lost as heat.

Extra!
Coupled
reactions: where
the first rxn is
exothermic and
the second is

Page 14

(3) Anaerobic Respiration

In the absence of oxygen

NAD or
FAD
Oxidised
Reduced
NAD or
reduced
FAD

A
reduced

A
oxidised

B
Oxidised

B
Reduced

Oxygen

reduced

C
oxidised

Water

Page 14

(3) Anaerobic Respiration

In the absence of oxygen

NAD or
FAD
Oxidised
Reduced
NAD or
reduced
FAD

What will
happen to
Krebs cycle?
LR?

A
reduced

A
oxidised

B
Oxidised

B
Reduced

Oxygen

reduced

C
oxidised

Water

Page 14

(3) Anaerobic Respiration

In the absence of oxygen
NAD or
FAD
Oxidised

A
reduced

Reduced
NAD or
reduced
FAD

A
oxidised

Oxd NAD and FAD are

not regenerated
through oxidation in
the ETC. KC and LR

will stop .

B
Oxidised

B
Reduced

Oxygen

reduced

Water

oxidised

In absence of O2,
OP cannot occur
because O2 is the
final electron
acceptor. ETC is
disrupted.

Pg 14

Absence of O2, ETC disrupted.

NAD and FAD are not regenerated through the
ETC.
Reduced NAD and FAD accumulates.

Anaerobic respiration (Anaerobiosis)

Oxygen is absent ETC, TCA &
Link Rxn cannot work!

Alcoholic fermentation
(plants & fungi)

To regenerate oxidised NAD so

that glycolysis can continue to
supply the 2 net ATP to sustain
cellular activities

Lactate fermentation
(muscle)

Page 14

Alcoholic Fermentation (Fungi eg.

Yeasts)
Site: Cytosol

reduction

Glycolysis
decarboxylation

Page 14

Reduced NAD
loses
hydrogen
atoms to
regenerate
NAD.

Ethanal accept
hydrogen
atoms to form
ethanol.
The enzyme is
alcohol
dehrdrogenas
e.

Lactate Fermentation (MAMMALS)

Site: Cytosol
Reduced NAD
loses
hydrogen
atoms to
regenerate
NAD.

Glycolysis

Pyruvate
accept
hydrogen
atoms to form
lactate.
The enzyme is
lactate
dehydrogenas
e.

Anaerobic respiration (Anaerobiosis)

Page 15

Purpose of Anaerobic respiration:

To regenerate oxidised NAD so that glycolysis can continue to produce
to 2 net ATP to sustain cellular/ muscular activity.

Efficiency of
aerobic &
anaerobic
respiration
aerobic respiration
= 38 ATP
anaerobic
respiration = net 2
ATP
Yield of energy
from anaerobic
respiration contrasts
unfavourably (~19x
less efficient) with
that from aerobic
respiration

Page 15