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Fuel - Any substance used to produce heat or power by

combustion.
Combustion Any chemical process accompanied with
evolution of heat and light
Fuel + Oxygen

Combustion products + Heat

Fossil fuels coal, oil, Natural gas

Solid fuel : Characterized by its mass,


composition, specific heat, combustion
residue & other thermal properties
Liquid fuel - Characterized by its
composition, specific heat, density, viscosity
& other thermal properties
Gaseous fuel - Liquid fuel - Characterized by
its composition,volume, pressure and
thermal properties

Solid fuel
Require excess of air for combustion &
process cannot be controlled easily.

During combustion they block air circulation


& corrode the furnace

Flue gases released during combustion


contain dust & soot particles

Liquid
fuel
High cost of
production

Cannot be
stored easily

Require
special
burners for
Combustion

Offensive odor

Gaseous
fuel
High cost of
production

Cannot be
stored easily

Highly
inflammable

High risk of
fire hazard

Primary or natural fuels exist naturally

Solid wood, peat, lignite, coal

Liquid Crude petroleum, Natural


gasoline

Gas Natural gas

Secondary or prepared fuels- Synthesized from


naturally occuring primary fuels

Solid Charcoal, Briquettes, coke

Liquid- Tar
Petroleum distillates : Gasoline, Kerosene, Gas
oils
Petroleum residues, Fuel oils, Alcohol

Gaseous Producer gas, water gas, CNG

Easy ignition, moderate ignition


temperature

Should give lot of heat high specific heat

Low smoke & combustible matter (ash)

Free from harmful combustible products

Inexpensive & readily available

Easy to store & transport

Ignition temperature temperature of the fuel at


which ignition starts & continues to burn
without further addition of heat.

Low ignition temperature creats fire hazard

High ignition temperature is not good for


starting of fire

Ash reduces calorific value, causes hinderence


to the flow of air & heat, reduces specific heat
& leads to unwanted disposable problems

Amount of heat obtained from fuel

UNITS
British thermal unit (BTU) : 1/180 of the
amount of heat necessary to raise 1lb of
water from 32 deg. F to 212 deg. F

Calorie : 1/100 of the amount of heat


necessary to raise 1g of water from 0 deg. C
to 100 deg. C

1 BTU = 252 cal


1 Kg-cal = 1000 cal

Heating value of solid & liquid fuel is given in


heat units per unit of weight
BTU/lb or cal/g
1cal/g = 1.8 BTU/lb

Heating value of gaseous fuels BTU/ft3 at 60


deg.F & 30 inches Hg

Gross calorific value (HCV) total amount of heat


liberated when 1 unit of fuel is burnt completely &
combustion products are cooled to room temp.
Net calorific value (LCV) amount of heat liberated
when 1unit of fuel is
burnt completely &
combustion products are allowed to escape.
Net calorific value = GCV latent heat of vapor
formed
NCV = GCV (wt. Of Hydrogen x 9 x latent heat
of steam)

1
8080 C + 34,500 H-O/8 +2240 S K cal/ kg
GCV =
100

Net Calorific
value =

HCV - 9/100 H X 587K cal/ kg

Internal combustion engines

Spark ignition
Compression
Engine
engine
Petrol

ignition
Diesel

In IC spark engine petrol & air are mixed &


compressed to 1/10th of its volume then
spark is produced to burn the fuel
Energy produced by burning gives smooth
thrust to piston which moves the wheel

Compression ratio Ratio of cylinder

volume at the end of downstroke to the


volume at the end of upstroke of the piston
Higher CR Higher engine efficiency

Rapid compression of fuel air mixture heats


the engine & detonates without spark being
passed resulting in violent jerk to the piston
giving a metallic rattling sound

KNOCKING

Reduces efficiency of engine

Knocking tendency
Aromatics < Cycloalkanes < Olefins
<Branched
Straight chain alkanes >chain
alkanes

The percentage by volume of isooctane in the


isooctane heptane mixture that matches the
knocking characteristics of the fuel being tested
Octane number
n-heptane

Zero

Isooctane

Hundred

Knocking can be prevented by adding


Tetra ethyl lead (TEL), Pb(C2H5)4 saving
money & energy
1-1.5 ml
TEL

1 L Petrol
Leaded Petrol

TEL get transformed in to lead oxide particles &


reacts with H2O2 molecules & prevent their

oxidation hence improper combustion

TEL 60%
Ethylene
bromide
26%
Ethylene
chloride
9%
Red dye-2%

Antiknock
Fluid

Harmful to environment

Lead oxide deposits on the engine affect its


functioning in longer period

Presence of sulphur compounds decreases its efficiency

Ethylene bromide can be added which converts lead in


to lead bromide which expelled with exhaust gases
preventingdeposition of lead oxide

Diesel engine
Air is compressed to 1/20th of its volume
This raises temp to 3000 C & diesel
ignites without spark
Diesel should ignites below compression
temperature
short induction lag desirable
Diesel consists of straight longer chain
hydrocarbons with minimum content of
branched & aromatic HCs.

Diesel engine
Air is compressed to 1/20th of its
volume
This raises temp to 3000 C & diesel
ignites without spark
Diesel should ignites below
compression temperature
short induction lag desirable

Diesel consists of straight longer chain


hydrocarbons with minimum content of
branched & aromatic HCs.

Diesel should have low spontaneous


ignition temperature

Seperate scale is required for grading

can not be rated on octane scale

Cetane number - used for rating diesel oil

It represents spontaneous ignition temperature


of
diesel fuel

Cetane n-Hexadecane ignites more rapidly


than any other diesel fuel assigned cetane no.
100
CH3(CH2)114CH3
n-Hexadecane

methyl naphthalene ignites slowly than any


other fuel assigned cetane no. - 0

Cetane number mixture of n-Hexadecane &


methyl naphthalene forms a standard scale
for spontaneous iginition temperature of diesel
fuel

Cetane number is defined as the percentage of


cetane
present in a mixture of cetane &
methyl naphthalene which matches the fuel
under test in ignition property

A diesel fuel said to have a cetane number 80


- matches in ignition property to 80% cetane &
20% methyl naphthalene

Petrol and diesel, one of the most precious


thing of todays life.
These are the non-renewable resources
provided to us by nature in limited amounts.
To find a solution, we must come up with
other alternatives and biodiesel is one of
them.
These
alkyl esters hold promise as
alternative diesel engine fuels.

Biofuels- solid, liquid & gaseous fuels


derived from living organisms and their
waste products

Solar
Energ
y

+ CO2

Biomass

Harvesting

CO2

Biofuel

Pre-processing

Cellulose
Enzymes

Ethanol

Microbial Fermentation
Sugars

Biomass

- Accumulation of organic waste

matter
produced by living things

Biomass Sources Wood , agricultural


residue, saw
mill waste, sugar refinery
waste,
municipal refuse etc.

Utilization of biomass
1. Direct

- Two Ways

Combustion Burn biomass directly


to obtain energy
For DC moisture should be > 15%
Drying required before combustion
Combustion produces steam used in
industries & for the generation of electricity

Utilization of biomass

- Two Ways

Anaerobic fermentation
2. Bio

mass

Ethanol

Advantages
Environment friendly
Low initial investment
Disadvantages Cost of energy is higher in urban areas
Collection & transportation of biomass is
expensive

Biodiesel - long chain of fatty acid alkyl esters

It is derived from renewable vegetable oils ,


animal fats , algae and various low-value
materials such as used cooking oils, greases
and soap stocks

Pacific biodiesel became one of the first


biodiesel plant in U.S. in 1996.

Renewable resource of energy


Do not increase level of greenhouse gases, a
blend of 20% biodiesel fuel reduces net CO2
emission by 15.66% .
Can produced domestically, hence reduces
petroleum imports.
Biodegradable
Waste products like used oils, soap stocks,
greases can be utilized
Low toxicity
Negligible sulphur content and lower exhaust
emission

Oils or fats + Alcohol


+Glycerol

catalyst

catalyst

Ester

Hydrolysis
Transesterification

Esterification.
Hydrolysis
Fats

or oil

water

Esterification

free fatty acids+ glycerol

catalyst

free fatty acid + alcohol


Overall

catalyst

ester + water

Transesterification
Fats or oil + alcohol catalyst fatty acid alkyl +glycerol

Enzymatic transesterification is better than


chemical transesterification as the recovery
of glycerol is easy.
It involves the use of enzyme as a catalyst
to carry out transesterification.
Lipase an enzyme is effective for
transesterification, is obtained from fungus.
Fungus species Aspergillus, Rhizopus are
used to carry out transesterification and
produce biodiesel.

Use of whole cell biocatalyst instead of


purified lipase cuts the cost of isolation,
purification and immobilization of pure
lipase.
Aspergillus sp., Rhizopus sp. have been
used.
Different oils (Cottonseed, Jatropha,
Karanj ) are used as carbon source for
growth as well as whole cell catalyzed
transesterification.

Oil

ester

Free fatty acids

Biogas

produced by degradation of biological matter


by bacterial action in absence of free oxygen

Natural gas biogas results after long period


of
decay of animal & vegetable matter by
bacteria under high pressure & optimum temp.

Gobar gas biogas produced by anaerobic


fermentation of cattle dung

Advantages of gobar gas over heating dried


cattle dung directly

produces more useful energy

provides high device efficiency

free from dust & smoke & environment friendly

used as domestic fuel as well as illuminant

Petrol blended with 5-10 % of ethanol is


called power alcohol

Addition of ethanol increases octane


number

E-diesel Diesel blended with ethanol

Used as fuel for small aircrafts in place of


leaded gasoline

1.

By fermentation- Slow decomposition of


complex organic compounds in to simpler
ones by enzymatic action
Yeast
C6H12O6
2C 2H5OH +CO2

Using Molasses : Dark brown mother liquor left


after crystallization of cane sugar from sugar
cane juice. It contains 50 % fermentable sugar
Invertase (Yeast)
C12H22O11 +H2O
C 6H12O6 +
C6H12O6
Glucose
2.

Fructose

C6H12O6

Zymase ( Yeast)
2C2H5OH +2CO2

Ethanol can also be obtained from starchy


materials e.g. Potatoes, barley, maize or
saw dust
Hydrolysis

Starchy materials

Sugar
Enzymatic
Fermentatio
n
Ethanol

Ethanol Good antiknocking agent

Octane number (PA) 90; Petrol - 65

Moisture get absorbed by alcohal

Ethanol contains oxygen which helps in complete


combustion of power alcohal

Polluting emissions of CO, HC & particulatesare


reduced

Cheaper than petrol

Calorific value (Ethanol) 7000 cal/g


Calorific value (PA) 11500 cal/g
Specially designed engine with higher
compression ratio
Output of power generated is reduced up to 35%
PA- High surface tension, difficult atomization at
low temp - causing starting trouble
It may undergo oxidation to form corrosive acetic
acid
Modified carburetor & engine required as less air
is required for combustion

Mixture of alkanes with composition resembling to


petrol
Obtained artificially from coal
Methods of preparation Bergius process, FischerTopsch process
Bergius process
catalyst (4500C, 200 atm)

Coal dust + H2

Mixture of
hydrocarbons
H2 / Cracking

Crude oil

Conversion of chemical energy into


electrical energy.
Battery is combination of cells either in
series or parralel or both in order to get
required amount of electrical energy.
Types of batteries:
Primary cells
Secondary cells

Primary cells
The chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy as long as chemical
component is active.
Can not be recharged or regenerated

Secondary

cells:

The redox reaction that convert chemical


energy into electrical energy can be
reversed by passage of current.
Can be recharged and regenerated

A cell is a battery packed with active material at


anode and cathode.
As anode and cathode are connected to load
redoc reaction occur.
Electrons liberated at anode flow to cathode
throgh external wire and part in reduction
reaction.
This process is called discharging
Active material is converted to inactive material.
Cell become inactive once active material is
consumed.

Cell Reaction is reversed if external current is


passed in reverse direction.
Process of conversion of inactive material to
active material is called Charging.

Metal Air Batteries: are the batteries which


breathe air ie they use oxygen directly from
the air to bring electrochemical reaction.

Alkaline batteries in which cathodic active


material is not stored in the cell.

Anode is composed of Granulated Zn powder


mixed with aq. 30% KOH and gelling agent to
immobilize the material.
Cathode is composed of mixture of C and
catalyst (oxide of Manganese).
Gelling agent held on Ni-coated steel matrix.
Several hydrophobic, gas permeable, thon
layer of Teflon are provided to steady air
entry.
Electrolyte contain 30% KOH.

Vents for entry of O2 into cell


Container is made up of glass and has a
separator made of nylon.
Cell represented as
Zn 30% KOH/Air,C

Reaction involved in cell are:


at anode: Zn Zn2+ + 2eZn2+ + 2OH----> ZnO + H2O

Zn + 2OH- ---> ZnO + H2O +2e At Cathode:

H2O + O2 + 2e- ---> 2OHOverall Cell reaction:


Zn + O2 ---> ZnO

These are light and have high energy


density
These are relatively eco-friendly and have
unlimited capacity.
Have low energy cost
Applications in hearing aids, medical devices,
and military radio receivers.

Li is light metal with low electrode potential


and good conductivity.
Group of batteries where Li is used as anode
are known as Lithium Batteries.
Li-MnO2 batteries
1. Anode is composed of Li.
2. Cathode is composed of heat treated MnO2
3. Electrolyte contain mixture of LiCl, LiBr,
LiAlO4, LiClO4 dissolved on Organic solvents

At anode: Li Li+ +e At cathode: MnO2 + Li+ +e- LiMnO2


Overall cell reaction:
Li + MnO2 LiMnO2
The offers EMF of 3.0 V
Charaterstics:
1. These are light in weight and Compact
2. Known for low maintainance and have high energy
density
Applications:
Memory backups, automatic Cameras, Calculators etc.

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