Chapter

19
Bacteria and Viruses

19-1 Bacteria
The invention of the microscope
opened our eyes to the hidden,
living world around us
Microscopic life covers nearly
every square centimeter of Earth

Prokaryotes
The smallest and most common
microorganisms
Unicellular organisms that lack a
nucleusand membrane bound
organelles
bacteria

Classifying Prokaryotes
Until recently, all prokaryotes were
placed in a single kingdom - monera
More recently, biologists have
begun to appreciate that
prokaryotes can be divided into two
very different groups: the
eubacteriaand the archaebacteria

Eubacteria
Eubacteria include a wide range
of organisms with different
lifestyles
Eubacteria live almost
everywhere

Archaebacteria
Lack the same carbohydrates of eubacteria
and also have different membrane lipids
Also, the DNA sequences of key
archaebacterial genes are more like those
of eukaryotes than those of eubacteria
Many archaebacteria live in extremely
harsh environments

Identifying Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are identified by
characteristics such as shape, the
chemical nature of their cell walls,
the way they move and the way
they obtain energy

Shapes
Bacilli rod shaped
Cocci spherical shaped
Spirilla spiral and corkscrew
shaped

Cell Walls
Eubacteria have peptigoglycan
Archaebacteia dont have
peptigoglycan

Movement
Some bacteria move differently
than others

Metabolic Diversity
No characteristic of prokaryotes
illustrates their diversity better
than the way they obtain energy

Heterotrophs
Must take inorganic molecules for
both energy and a supply of
carbon

Photoheterotrophs
These organisms are
photosynthetic using sunlight for
energy but they also need to take
in organic compounds as a
carbon source

Photoautotrophs
Use light energy to convert
carbon dioxide and water to
carbon compounds and oxygen in
a process similar to that used by
green plants
Ex.) cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)

Chemoautotrophs
Can perform chemosynthesis
Make organic carbon molecules
from carbon dioxide
Unlike photoautotrophs, however
they do not require light as a source
of energy. Instead they use energy
directly from chemical reactions

Releasing Energy
Like all organisms, bacteria need
a constant supply of energy
This energy is released by the
process of cellular respiration or
fermentation or both

Obligate aerobes
Require a constant supply of
oxygen in order to live

Obligate anaerobes
Do not require oxygen and if fact
may be killed by it

Facultative anaerobes
Can survive with or without
oxygen

Growth and Reproduction

Bacteria can grow really fast
If unlimited space and food were
available to a single bacterium and if
all of its offspring divided every 20
minutes in just 48 hours they would
reach a mass of approximately 4000
times the mass of the earth!

Binary Fission
When a bacterium has grown so
that it has nearly doubled in size,
it replicates its DNA and divides in
half producing 2 identical
daughter cells

Binary Fission
Bacterial
reproduction,
asexual
reproduction

Conjugation
Many bacteria are also able to
exchange genetic information by
a process called conjugation
This transfer of genetic
information increases genetic
diversity

Spore Formation
When growth conditions become
unfavorable, many bacteria form
structures called spores

Endospore
A type of spore formed when a
bacterium produces a thick
internal wall that encloses a thick
internal wall that encloses its DNA
and a portion of its cytoplasm

Endospore

Importance of Bacteria
Bacteria are vital to maintaining the
living world
Some are producers that capture energy
by photosynthesis
Others are decomposers that break
down the nutrients in dead matter and
the atmosphere
Still other bacteria have human uses

Decomposers
As decomposers, bacteria help
the ecosystem recycle nutrients,
therefore maintaining equilibrium
in the environment

Nitrogen Fixers
You may recall that plants need nitrogen to
make amino acids, the building blocks of
protiens
Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up approximately 80
percent of Earths atmosphere
However, plants cant use nitrogen gas directly
Nitrogen must first be changed chemically to
ammonia (NH3) or other nitrogen compounds

Nitrogen fixation
Process which turns unusable nitrogen
gas into useful nitrogen containing
compounds
Allows nitrogen atoms to continually
cycle through the biosphere
Many plants have symbiotic
relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria

Human Uses of Bacteria

Used in food and beverage
production
Industries: petroleum, water, mining,
drugs
Inside of us (symbiosis)
E.coli

Drug research

19 2 Viruses

Viruses
Particles of nucleic acid, protein, and
sometimes lipids
Viruses can reproduce only by infecting
living cells
A typical virus is composed of a core of
DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat
Viruses are very small. They can only be
seen with an electron microscope

Capsid
A viruses protein coat
The capsid proteins of a typical virus bind to
receptors on the surface of a cell and trick the
cell into allowing it inside
Once inside, the viral genes are expressed and
causes the host cell to make copies of the virus
and in the process the host cell is destroyed
Because viruses must bind precisely to proteins
on the cell surface and then use a hosts genetic
system, most viruses are highly specific to the
cells they infect

Viral Infection
Once the virus is inside the host
cell, two different processes may
occur

Lytic Infection
In a lytic infection, a virus enters a
cell, makes copies of itself, and
causes the cell to burst

A literary approach to lytic

virus infections
In its own way, a lytic virus is similar to a
desperado in the Old West. First, the outlaw
eliminates the towns existing authority (host cell
DNA). Then, the desperado demands to be
outfitted with new weapons, horses, and riding
equipment by terrorizing the local people (using
the host cell to make proteins). Finally, the
desperado forms a gang that leaves the town to
attack new communities (the host cell bursts,
releasing hundreds of virus particles).

Lysogenic Infection
In a lysogenic infection, a virus integrates its
DNA into the DNA of the host cell, and the viral
genetic information replicates along with the host
cells DNA
Unlike lytic viruses, lysogenic viruses do not lyse
the host cell right away. Instead, a lysogenic
virus remains inactive for a period of time
Eventually, only one of a number of factors may
activate the DNA of a prophage which will then
remove itself from the host cell DNA and direct
the synthesis of new viruses particles

Retroviruses
Viruses that contain RNA as their
genetic information
When retroviruses infect a cell,
they produce a DNA copy of their
RNA
Ex.) HIV

Viruses and Living Cells

Viruses must infect a living cell in order
to grow and reproduce
They also take advantage of the hosts
respiration, nutrition and all the other
functions that occur in living things
Therefore, viruses are considered to be
parasites

Parasites
organisms that live on or in a host
organism from which it obtains
nutrients, and it usually does
harm to the host

Are viruses alive?

Cells and Viruses
Characteristic

Cell

Structure

Cell membrane, cytoplasm;

eukaryotes also contain
nucleus and organelles

Reproduction

Independent cell division either

asexually or sexually

Genetic Code

DNA

Growth and Development

Yes; in multicellular organisms,

cells increase in number and
differentiate

Obtain and Use Energy

yes

Response to Environment

yes

Change Over Time

yes

Virus

19 3 Diseases Caused
by Bacteria and Viruses
Bacteria and viruses are
everywhere in nature, but only a
few cause disease

Pathogens
Disease causing agents
All viruses reproduce by infecting living cells,
and disease results when the infection causes
harm to the host
All bacteria require nutrients and energy:
however, disease results when bacteria
interfere with the hosts ability to obtain
enough of those elements to function properly

Bacterial Disease in Humans

Bacteria produce disease in one of two
general ways
1. Some bacteria damage the cells and
tissues of the host by breaking down
the cells for food
2. Other bacteria release toxins that
travel throughout the body interfering
with the normal activity of the host

Preventing Bacterial Disease

Many bacterial disease can be
prevented by stimulating the
bodies immune system with
vaccines

Vaccine
A preparation of weakened or killed
pathogen
When injected into the body, a vaccine
sometimes prompts the body to produce
immunity to the disease
If a bacterial infection does occur, a
number of drugs can be used to attack
and destroy the invading bacteria

Antibiotics
Compounds that block the growth
and reproduction of bacteria

Controlling Bacteria
There are various methods used
to control bacterial growth,
including sterilization,
disinfectants, and food processing

Sterilization by Heat
Many bacteria cannot survive high
temperatures for a long time, so
most can be killed by exposure to
high heat
Ex.) pasteurization

Disinfectants
Chemical solutions that kill
pathogenic bacteria

Food Storage and Processing

Food that is stored at a low
temperature will stay fresh longer
because bacteria cannot reproduce
fast at cold temperatures
Also, a lot of the processing
procedures that are used in the food
industry raise the temperature of food
to a point where the bacteria are killed

Viral Disease in Humans

Like bacteria, viruses produce disease
by disrupting the bodys normal
equilibrium
Unlike bacterial diseases, viruses cant
be treated with antibiotics
The best way to protect against most
viral diseases lies in prevention by the
use of vaccines

Viral Disease in Animals

Viruses produce serious animal
disease as well
Ex.) Foot-and-mouth disease,
Rous sarcoma

Viral Disease in Plants

Many viruses infect plants
Ex.) Tobacco mosaic virus, potato
yellow dwarf virus

Viroids and Prions

Scientists have discovered two
virus-like particles that also cause
disease

Viroids
Single stranded RNA molecules
that have no surrounding capsid
Cause disease in plants

Prions
Proteins that cause disease in
animals
Ex.) Mad cow disease