Ecology is the study of interactions

between organisms and the environment

Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere
Ecology has a long history as a descriptive science
These interactions determine distribution of
organisms and their abundance
Events that occur in ecological time affect life on
the scale of evolutionary time
Rachel Carson is credited with starting the modern
environmental movement

Organisms and the

Environment
The environment of any organism includes:
Abiotic, or nonliving, components
Biotic, or living, components
All the organisms that are part of the individuals
environment are collectively called the biota
Environmental components affect the distribution
and abundance of organisms

Kangaroos/km2
> 20
1020
510
15
0.11
< 0.1
Limits of
distribution

Tasmania

Subfields of
Ecology
Organismal ecology studies how an organisms structure,
physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental
challenges
Population ecology focuses on factors affecting how many
individuals of a species live in an area
Community ecology deals with the whole array of
interacting species in a community
Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical
cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components
Landscape ecology deals with arrays of ecosystems and
how they are arranged in a geographic region

Interactions between organisms and the

environment limit the distribution of species
Ecologists have long recognized global and
regional patterns of distribution of organisms
within the biosphere
Many naturalists began to identify broad patterns
of distribution by naming biogeographic realms
Biogeography is a good starting point for
understanding what limits geographic distribution
of species

Palearctic
Nearctic
Tropic
of Cancer
(23.5N)

Oriental
Ethiopian

Equator
Neotropical
(23.5S)
Tropic of
Capricorn

Australian

Dispersal and
Distribution
Dispersal is movement of individuals away from
centers of high population density or from their
area of origin
Dispersal contributes to global distribution of
organisms
Natural range expansions show the influence of
dispersal on distribution

New areas
occupied Year
1996
1989
1974

Species
Transplants
Species transplants include organisms that are
intentionally or accidentally relocated from their
original distribution
Species transplants can disrupt the communities
or ecosystems to which they have been introduced
Some organisms do not occupy all of their
potential range
Species distribution may be limited by habitat
selection behavior

Biotic Factors and Abiotic

Factors
Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include:
Interactions with other species, predation and
competition
Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms:
Temperature, water, sunlight, wind, rocks and
soil

100
Sea
urchin

Seaweed cover (%)

80

Both limpets
and urchins
removed
Only
urchins
removed

60
Limpet
40

Only limpets removed

Control (both
urchins and
limpets present)

20

August
1982

February
1983

August
1983

February
1984

Environmental temperature is an important factor in distribution of

organisms because of its effects on biological processes

Water availability in habitats is another important factor in species

distribution

Light intensity and quality affects photosynthesis, and it is also

important to development and behavior of organisms sensitive to
photoperiod

Wind amplifies effects of temperature by increasing heat loss from

evaporation and convection. Wind can also change morphology of
plants

Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and thus the

animals that feed upon them: physical structure, pH and mineral
composition

Climat
e

Four major abiotic components of climate: temperature,

water, sunlight, and wind
Climate is the prevailing weather in an area
Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global, regional,
and local level
Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as those
encountered by the community of organisms underneath a
fallen log
Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar
energy and the planets movement in space
Sunlight intensity plays a major part in determining the
Earths climate patterns

North Pole
60N

Low angle of incoming sunlight

30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Sunlight directly overhead at equinoxes

0 (equator)
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S

Low angle of incoming sunlight

60S
South Pole
Atmosphere

Global air circulation and wind patterns play major roles

in determining climate patterns
60N
30N
June solstice:
Northern Hemisphere
tilts toward sun;
summer begins in
Northern
Hemisphere; winter
begins in Southern
Hemisphere.

0 (equator)

March equinox: Equator faces sun

directly; neither pole tilts toward sun;
all regions on Earth experience 12
hours of daylight and 12 hours of
darkness.

30S

Constant tilt
of 23.5
September equinox: Equator faces
sun directly; neither pole tilts
toward sun; all regions on Earth
experience 12 hours of daylight and
12 hours of darkness.

December solstice:
Northern Hemisphere tilts
away from sun; winter
begins in Northern
Hemisphere; summer
begins in Southern
Hemisphere.

Seasonal variations of light and temperature increase

steadily toward the poles

60N
30N
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture

0 (equator)
30S
60S

.5
30 23

Arid
zone

Ascending
moist air
releases
moisture
0
Tropics

Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture

23.5 30

Arid
zone

Arctic
Circle
60N
Westerlies
30N
Northeast trades
Doldrums
Southeast trades

0
(equator)
30S

Westerlies
60S
Antarctic
Circle

 Oceans and their currents and large lakes moderate the

climate of nearby terrestrial environments

Mountains have a significant effect on the amount of sunlight

reaching an area, the local temperature and rainfall.

Wind
direction

East

Pacific
Ocean

Coast
Range

Sierra
Nevada

Spring

Winter

O2 (mg/L)
8

12

8
16
2
4
4
4
4C

24
O2 concentration

Lake depth (m)

Lake depth (m)

The angle of the sun leads to many seasonal changes in local

environments. Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature change
and experience seasonal turnover
O2 (mg/L)
0

12

12

8
16
24

4
4
4
4C

High (>8 mg/L)

Medium (48 mg/L)

O2 (mg/L)
0

12

16
24

22
20
18
8
6
5
4C

4
4
4
4C

Autumn

Thermocline

Summer

Lake depth (m)

Lake depth (m)

Low (<4 mg/L)

O2 (mg/L)
0
8
16
24

Abiotic and biotic factors influence the

structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes
Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic factors
determine the nature of biomes
Biomes are the major ecological associations that
occupy broad geographic regions of land or water
Aquatic biomes account for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area
They can contain fresh water or salt water
Oceans cover about 75% of Earths surface and
have an enormous impact on the biosphere

30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn

Continental
shelf

30S

Key
Lakes

Rivers

Estuaries

Coral
reefs

Oceanic
pelagic zone

Intertidal
zone

Abyssal zone
(below oceanic
pelagic zone)

Littoral
zone

Limnetic
zone

Photic
zone
Benthic
zone

Zonation in a lake

Pelagic
zone
Aphotic
zone

Intertidal zone
Neritic zone

Oceanic zone

Photic zone

200 m
Continental
shelf

Pelagic
zone
Benthic
zone

2,5006,000 m
Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
Marine zonation

Aphotic
zone

 Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or

layers defined by light penetration, temperature,
and depth
Major aquatic biomes: lakes, wetlands, streams
and rivers, estuaries, intertidal zones, oceanic
pelagic biome, coral reefs and marine benthic
zone

Climate largely determines the distribution

and structure of terrestrial biomes
Climate is very important in determining why
terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
Climate has a great impact on the distribution of
organisms, as seen on a climograph

Desert

Temperate grassland

Tropical forest

Annual mean temperature (C)

30

Temperate
broadleaf
forest

15

Coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
15
100

200

300

Annual mean precipitation (cm)

400

30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S

Key
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert

Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Coniferous forest

Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice

General Features of Terrestrial

Biomes
Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical or
climatic factors and for vegetation
Stratification is a key feature of terrestrial biomes
Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without
sharp boundaries
The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may be wide
or narrow
Major terrestrial biomes: tropical forest, desert, savanna,
chaparral, temperate grassland, coniferous forest,
temperate broadleaf forest and tundra

Animations and
Videos
Chapter Quiz Questions 1
Chapter Quiz Questions 2
Bozeman Ecosystems
Bozeman - Ecosystem Change
Earth's Four Convection Cells
How Ecosystems Work
Biomes