Chapter 4

Structured Query
Language (SQL)
 More Complex Queries
and SQL Functions
• Ordering a Listing

ORDER BY <attributes>

SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT,

P_INDATE, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT
ORDER BY P_PRICE;
Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes Ordered by
(Ascending) P_PRICE

Figure 6.20
The Partial Listing of the EMPLOYEE Table

Figure 6.21
SELECT EMP_LNAME, EMP_FNAME, EMP_INITIAL,
EMP_AREACODE, EMP_PHONE FROM EMPLOYEE
ORDER BY EMP_LNAME, EMP_FNAME, EMP_INITIAL;

Figure 6.22
 Multiple restriction queries

Example of a Query that is based on multiple restrictions:

SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_INDATE < ’08-20-1999’
AND P_PRICE <= 50.00 ORDER BY V_CODE, P_PRICE,
DESC;
More Complex Queries
and SQL Functions

• Listing Unique Values

SELECT DISTINCT V_CODE FROM

PRODUCT;

Figure 6.24
Some Basic SQL Numeric Functions

FUNCTI ON OUTPUT

COUNT The number of rows containing the specified

attribute.

MI N The minimum attribute value encountered.

MAX The maximum attribute value encountered.

AVG The arithmetic mean (average) for the specified

attribute.

SUM The sum of all values for a selected attribute.

COUNT Function Output Examples

Figure 6.25
MAX and MIN Function Output Examples

Figure 6.26
 More Complex Queries
and SQL Functions
SUM
SELECT SUM(P_ONHAND*P_PRICE) FROM
PRODUCT;

AVG
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE,
V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_PRICE >
(SELECT AVG(P_PRICE) FROM PRODUCT)
ORDER BY P_PRICE DESC;
AVG Function Output Examples

Figure 6.28
GROUP BY
SELECT P_SALECODE, MIN(P_PRICE) FROM
PRODUCT_2
GROUP BY P_SALECODE;

Figure 6.29
Improper Use of the GROUP BY Clause

Figure 6.30
An Application of the HAVING Clause

Figure 6.31
 More Complex
Queries and SQL
Functions
• Virtual Tables: Creating a View

Figure 6.32
 More Complex
Queries and SQL
Functions
• SQL Indexes

CREATE INDEX P_CODEX ON

PRODUCT(P_CODE);

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX P_CODEX

ON PRODUCT(P_CODE);
 More Complex
Queries and SQL
Functions
• Joining Database Tables
SELECT PRODUCT.P_DESCRIPT,
PRODUCT.P_PRICE, VENDOR.V_NAME,
VENDOR.V_CONTACT,
VENDOR.V_AREACODE,
VENDOR.V_PHONE
FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR
WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE =
VENDOR.V_CODE;
Table 6.11
The Results of a JOIN

Figure 6.33
 More Complex
Queries and SQL
Functions
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE, V_NAME,
V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE
FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR
WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE = VENDOR.V_CODE
AND P_INDATE > ’08-15-1999’;

Figure 6.34
 Procedural
SQL
• Shortcomings of SQL
– SQL doesn’t support execution of a stored set of
procedures based on some logical condition.
– SQL fails to support the looping operations.

• Solutions
– Embedded SQL
• To remedy the above shortcomings, SQL
statements can be inserted within the
procedural programming language
• The embedded SQL approach involves the
duplication of application code in many
programs.
– Shared Code
• Critical code is isolated and shared by all
application programs.
 Procedural
SQL
• Procedural SQL
– Procedural SQL allows the use of
procedural code and SQL statements that
are stored within the database.
– The procedural code is executed by the
DBMS when it is invoked by the end user.
– End users can use procedural SQL
(PL/SQL) to create:
• Triggers
• Stored procedures
• PL/SQL functions
 Procedural
SQL

• Triggers
– A trigger is procedural SQL code that is
automatically invoked by the RDBMS
upon the occurrence of a data
manipulation event.
• A trigger is always invoked before or
after a data row is selected, inserted,
or updated.
• A trigger is always associated with a
database table.
Trigger - Insert Trigger

A C+1
B D+1

Table A Table B
After data is inserted to Table A then
do something to Table B
 Procedural
SQL
– Role of triggers
• Triggers can be used to enforce constraints
that cannot be enforced at the design and
implementation levels.
• Triggers add functionality by automating
critical actions and providing appropriate
warnings and suggestions for remedial action.
• Triggers can be used to update table values,
insert records in tables, and call other stored
procedures.
• Triggers add processing power to the RDBMS
and to the database system.
The Revised PRODUCT Table

Figure 7.30
 Trigger
• Syntax to create a trigger in ORACLE

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER

<trigger_name>
[BEFORE/AFTER][DELETE/INSERT/UPDAT
E OF <column_name] ON <table_name>
[FOR EACH ROW]
BEGIN
PL/SQL instructions;
……………
END;
 Trigger-Example
• Syntax to create a trigger in IBM DB2

create trigger <TriggerName> <After

Insert/After Update> on product for
each row mode db2sql UPDATE
<TableName> set <Conditions>
Creation of the Oracle Trigger for PRODUCT Table

Figure 7.31
The PRODUCT Table’s P_REORDER Field is
Updated by the Trigger

Figure 7.32
The P_REORDER Value Mismatch

Figure 7.33
The Second Version of the
PRODUCT_REORDER Trigger

Figure 7.34
The Third Version of
the
Product Reorder
Trigger

Figure 7.37
Execution of the Third Trigger Version

Figure 7.38
 Procedural
SQL
• Stored Procedures
– A stored procedure is a named
collection of procedural and SQL
statements.
– Stored procedures are stored in the
database and invoked by name.
– Stored procedures are executed as
a unit.
– The use of stored procedures
reduces network traffic, thus
Stored Procedure

A Stored C+ 1
B Procedure D+ 1

Table A Table B

You can manipulate the whole set of records (changing,

adding, updating, deleting…) using stored procedure
 Procedural
SQL
• Syntax to create a stored procedure

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE

procedure_name (argument IN/OUT data-
type, etc)
IS/AS BEGIN
DECLARE variable name and data type
PL/SQL or SQL statements;
END;
• Syntax to invoke a stored procedure

EXEC store_procedure_name (parameter,

parameter, …)
 Procedural
SQL
• Stored Procedures
– DECLARE is used to specify the variables
used within the procedure.
– Argument specifies the parameters that
are passed to the stored procedure.
– IN / OUT indicates whether the parameter
is for INPUT or OUTPUT or both.
– Data-type is one of the procedural SQL
data types used in the RDBMS.
Creating and Invoking A Simple
Stored Procedure

Figure 7.41
 Procedural
SQL
• PL/SQL Stored Functions
– A stored function is a named group of
procedural and SQL statements that
returns a value.
– Syntax to create a function:
CREATE FUNCTION function_name
(argument IN data-type, etc)
RETURN data-type
AS BEGIN
PL/SQL statements;
RETURN (value); ……
END;
 The Y2K Problem
• Problem
– Many database vendors use 2-digit date
formats as the default. How the 2-digit
year is viewed depends on how the DBMS
vendor treats dates.
• Solutions
– Design and implement database
applications that always enter and
display dates with four-digit years and
use a Julian date field format.
– Julian date stores date field values as the
number of days since a predetermined
date.
 References

•ROB, P. AND CORONEL, C., 2004, Database

Systems. 6th Ed., Thomson Course Technology