Unit I

Introduction to Embedded System

Definition Embedded systems are
computing systems with tightly coupled
hardware and software integration, which
are designed to perform a dedicated
function.
Explanation An embedded system is a
combination of computer hardware along
with the mechanical or electrical parts,
and system software to perform some
specific task.

Embedded system and General

purpose computer system
An embedded system refers to A
computer which has been designed to do
specialized tasks. Example Vending
machine machine or printer etc.
General purpose computer system is a
combination of hardware and software
which performs different task by following
the instruction provided by the user .It is
not designed to solve any particular
problem.

E.S

Difference b/w E.S and

G.P.Computer system

An embedded system is designed to perform some

special task.
It uses simplified circuit.
Less memory is required.
It uses slow processor.
It is low in cost.
General Purpose computer system
It is designed to perform a variety of task.
The circuit is more complex.
It requires more memory.
It requires high speed processor.
It is high in cost

Classification of Embedded
System
Classification of E.S

Classification based on
the Function
Standalo
ne
embedd
ed
system

Real
Time
E.S

Net
wor
k
Appl
icati
on

Mobile
Embedde
d System

Classification
based on
Hardware and
software
Complexity
Small
Scale
E.S

Medi
um
scale
E.S

Sophi
sticat
ed
E.S

Classification based on the Function

Standalone E.S It is built using a
specialized communication
processor, memory a number of
network access interfaces and
special software that implements
logic for sending information from
one device to another decice.
Real Time E.S It monitors the

Purpose of E.S
E.S are small, fast and very powerful tools.
An E.S is a micro-processor based system
that is built to control a function or range of
functions .
E.S is designed to perform one or a few
dedicated or specific functions but with
choices and different options.
E.S are often required to provide Real-Time
response.
A Real-Time is defined as a system whose
correctness depends on the timeliness of its

Why do we need E.S

General purpose computers like PCs would be too
costly for the majority of products that incorporate some
form of E.S technology.
General purpose computers might fail to meet a number
of functional or performance requirements such as
constraints in power-consumption, size limitation etc.
In todays digital world the life totally depends on at
least one piece of equipment which contains processor
like a phone, television, washing machine etc.
The power requirement of E.S like cell phone , cameras
are very less as compared to the other general purpose
computer system.

Application of E.S
Some applications of E.S are as follows:
Automobile Sector:
E.S is widely used in automobile industries not only in the
development of automobiles but also in vehicles for
achieving various automated operations.
Automobile sector uses the embedded system in the
following:
Anti-lock braking system(ABS)
Electronic Stability Control (ESC/ESP)
Traction Control (TCS)
Automatic Four-Wheel Drive
Fuel Injecton Control
Air bags and Automatic braking

 Telecommunication- This industry utilizes

numerous embedded systems from telephone
switches for the network to mobile phones at
the enduser.
Telecom industry uses the E.S in the following:
In Telephone lines to route data
For messaging
For other multimedia features in cell
phones and other devices.
In network router and bridges
Rocket and satellite control.
Air Traffic Control.

 Aerospace and Avionics E.S is more popular in this

field because a complex mixture of hardware,
electronics and embedded software is required to fulfill
the requirements.
Embedded engineers confront major challenges in this
field like:
Specially designed programs that helps to synchronize
the hardware of aero vehicles and the system software
of ATC, to take-off and landing the aero-vehicles.
Ensuring that the complex software and hardware
interactions are right.
Assembling components that meet specifications and
perform effectively together.
Understanding the larger context of the embedded
software.

 Consumer Electronics: This field has

benefited a lot from embedded
technologies like:
MP3 Players
Mobile Phones
Digital Cameras
Printers
Defense: The defense field also uses
the E.S services in RADARs, Guided
Missile Systems, automated guns and
satellite phones.

Core Components of E.S

Hardware
Processor or the CPU is responsible for performing
all the computational and logical operations in an
E.S.
Memory It is odevice which can be used to store
data in a system. An E.S can have on-chip or off
chip memory. There are different kinds of memory
devices.
User Interface It is a mechanism through which
user can provide certain choices to the E.S. These
choices are used by the CPU to perform a given task
in certain manner. Keypad is one of the most
common UI.

Displays These are used to provide

certain information to the user.
Alphanumeric Displays and LCD
displays are widely used in embedded
device.
Input/Output: I/O peripherals provide a
physical media for Data Transfer with
the external world.
Other Electrical Components: There
are plenty of other active and passive
components in an E.S. Examples Power
supply, Data Converters etc.

Software
Control software:- It is responsible for
managing different modules of the
system.
Computation Extensive software: - It
is responsible for performing
mathematical and logical operations
on the input data. The output of this
can be sent back or stored for later
use or can be used by the control
software to take certain decisions.

 Device Drivers: - These are the

software modules which control
systems peripheral.
User Interface:- This software is
responsible for collecting user inputs
and providing User Menu or
System Status to the user.
Operating system : It is a software
which manages the different
resources of a system and provides
an abstraction of the underlying
hardware to the users.

Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers
Microprocessors It is a programmable
integrated circuit that can perform any
type of arithmetic or logical operation
within a fraction of second.
It forms a vital role on a computer system.
Microprocessor is a high speed computer
with less storage capacity within it.
It is also called as CPU or Central
Processing Unit.
It is the heart of a computer.
It is a complete computation engine that is

Working of Microprocessor
A microprocessor executes a collection of
machine instructions that tell the processor what
task to do.
A microprocessor does three basic things: Using ALU it can perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
It can move data from one memory location to
another.
It can make decisions and jump to a new set of
instructions based on those decisions.

Microcontroller
It is a small computer on a single integrated
circuit containing a processor core, memory
and programmable input/output peripherals.
It is designed for personal computers or
other general purpose applications.
They are used in automatically controlled
products and devices like automobile engine
control systems, applications etc.
Microcontrollers are special purpose
computer.

 Microcontrollers are embedded inside

some other device so that they can control
the features or actions of the product.It is
also called as embedded controller.
They are dedicated to do one task and run
one specific program. The programs are
stored in ROM.
They are low power devices ie they
consume less power.
It has a dedicated input device and often
has a small LED or LCD display for output.
It is often small and low cost.

Difference b/w Microprocessor and

Microcontroller
Microprocessor
It is a general purpose device that finds its
applications in most of the electronic device.
It is a dependant unit that requires other chips for
its proper operation.
It is called as a IC which contains many useful
functions.
It requires external memory devices to stored set
of instructions to carry out user defined tasks.
It main use is to read data, perform extensinve
calculations on that data, and store the results in
a mass storage device or display the results.
Example for microprocessor is 8085.

 Microcontroller.
It is a specific purpose device which has a
specific task for a sepecfic device.
It is an independent device that does not
require any other specific chips.
It is called as Microchip which contains the
components of microprocessor.
It has the ability to execute a stored set of
instructions to carry out user defined
tasks.
It is used to control the operations of a
machine using a fixed program that is
stored in Rom and does not change over
the lifetime of the system.

RISC AND CISC Controllers

RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computing
It is designed to perform a smaller number
of types of computer instructions so that it
can operate at a higher speed.
The range of instructions is 30 to 40.
It is a type of microprocessor architecture
that utilizes a small, highly-optimezed set of
instructions , rather than a more specialized
set of instructions often found in other
types of architectures.

 CISC- Complex Instruction Set

Computing
Here a single instruction can execute
several low-level operations and is
capable of performing multi-step
operations or addressing modes
within single instructions.
Pentium microprocessors are CISC
microprocessors.

Difference b/w RISC and

CISC
RISC
It has lesser number of instructions.
It uses High level instructions.
Provides instruction pipelining.
Increased execution speed.
Single fixed length instruction.
Less silicon and pins are used.
Design time is reduced.
It uses Harvard Architecture.
Large number of registers are available.

 CISC
It has more number of instructions.
It rarely uses high-level instructions.
Instruction pipelining is not used.
Comparative lesser speed.
Variable length instructions.
More silicon and pins are used.
Increased design time.
Uses Von Neumann Architecture.
Limited number of general purpose
registers available.

Big Endian and Little Endian

Processors
Big Endian and Little Endian
processors describe the order in
which a sequence of bytes are stored
in computer memory.
Big Endian is an order in which the
most significant value in the sequence
is stored first at the lowest storage
address.
Little Endian is an order in which the
least significant value in the sequence

Application Specific Integrated

Circuits(ASIC)
It is designed to perform some specific function
or task.
It is a microchip customized for a particular use
rather than for general purpose use.
Ex- A chip designed solely to run a cell phone is
an ASIC.
It include entire 32-bit processors , memory
blocks including ROM, RAM, EEPROM, Flash and
other large building blocks.
ASIC is often termed as SoC (System-on-a-Chip).

ASCIsTypes
ASCIs are categorized according to the
technology used for manufacturing them. They
are:
Full-custom- The full custom ICS are the ASIC
that cannot be modified to suit for the different
applications.
These are entirely tailor-fitted to a particular
application from the very start.
As its design and functionality is pre-specified by
the user it is manufactured with all the layers
fully defined like off-the-shelf general purpose
ICS.
Semi-custom These ASCI can be modifies

 Structured or Platform ASIC

This belongs to a relatively new ASIC
classification.
These are designed and produced
from a tightly defined set of design
methodologies ,intellectual
properties and well-characterized
silion.
This type of ASIC is developed for
shortening the design cycle and
minimizing the development costs of
the ASIC.

Programmable Logic
Devices(PLD)
It is an electronic component used to
build reconfigurable digital circuits.
A PLD has an undefined function at
the time of manufacture.
Before the PLD can be used in a
circuit it must be programmed that is
reconfigured.

Classification of PLD
Classification of
Devices

Fixed Logic
Devices
FLD

Programmab
le Logic
Devices
PLD

FLD
The circuits in a FLD are permanent.
They are made to perform one function
or set of functions.
Once FLDS are manufactured they
cannot be changed.
With FLDs the time required to go
from design, to prototypes, to a final
manufacturing run can take from
several months to a year.

PLD

Sensors
Sensors are also called as detectors.
The changes in the system environment or variables are
detected by the sensors connected to the input port of
the embedded system.
It is a transtrucer that converts energy from one type to
another type for any particular purpose.
Example- ECG machine it is designed to monitor the
heart beat status of a patient and it canot impose a
control over the patients heart beat and its order. The
sensors are used here are the different electrode sets
connected to the body of the patient.
The variations are captured and presented to the user
through a visual display or some printed chart.

Actuators
Actuator is a form of transducer device which
converts signals to corresponding physical action.
Actuator acts as an output device.
If the embedded system is designed for any
controlling purpose the system will produce some
changes in the controlling variable to bring the
controlled variable to the desired value. This is
achieved through an actuator connected to the
output port of the embedded system.
If the E.S is designed for monitoring purpose only
then there is no need for including an actuator in
the system.

Types of Actuators
Classification of Actuators

Multi-Turn
Actuator

Part-Turn Actuator

Linear Actuator

Multi-turn Actuator It is an actuator which transmits to

the valve a torque for at least one
full revolution. It is capable of
withstanding thrust.
It is required for the automation of
multi-turn valves.
One of the main type of this is the
gate valve.

Part-turn actuators
It is an actuator which transmits a torque to
the valve for less than one full revolution. It
is not capable of withstanding thrust.
The major representatives of this type are
butterfly valves and ball valves.
Linear Actuator
The major representative of this type are
the control valves.
Just like the plug in the bathtub is pressed
into the drain the plug is pressed into the
plug seat by a stroke.

Communication Interface
These are the devices through with the E.S
can interact with various subsystems and
the external world.
For embedded product communication
interface can be viewed in two different
perspectives :
1)Device/board level communication
interface(On board communication Interface)
2)Product level communication interface
(External communication interface)

Onboard communication
Interface
The communication channel which
interconnects the various
components within an embedded
product is referred as device/broad
level communication interface.
Examples Serial interfaces like
I2C,I-Wire, and parallel bus interface.

External Communication
interface
These are the E.S which may be a part of large
distributed system and they require interaction and
data transfer between various devices and submodules.
The product level communication interface is
responsible for data transfer between the E.S and
other devices or modules.
The external communication interface can be either
a wired media or a wireless media and it can be a
serial or a parallel interface.
Examples Infrared (IR), Bluetooth(BT), Wireless
LAN (Wi-Fi),Radio Frequency waves etc.

On Board Communication Interface

Inter Integrated Circuit Bus (I2C Bus)
It is a synchronous bi-directional half duplex
two
wire
serial
bus
which
provides
communication link between integrated circuits.
It was designed by Philips Semiconductors in
1980s.
It was developed to provide an easy way of
connection between a microprocessor /
microcontroller system and peripheral chips in
television sets.

 It comprises of two bus lines i.e Serial Clock-SCL and

Serial Data-SDA.
SCL line is responsible for generating synchronisation
clock pulses.
SDA is responsible for transmitting the serial data across
devices.
I2C bus is a shared bus system to which many number of
I2C devices can be connected.
Devices connected to the I2C nus can act as either
Master device or Slave device.
The Master device is responsible for controlling the
communication by initiating or terminating data transfer,
sending data and generating necessary synchronisation
clock pulses.
The Slave devices wait for the commands from the
Master and respond upon receiving the commands.

 Master and Slave devices can act as

either transmitter or receiver.
Regardless whether a master is
acting as transmitter or receiver the
synchronisation clock signal is
generated by Master device only.
I2C supports multi masters on the
same bus.

External Communication
Interfaces
Infrared
Infrared is a serial ,half duplex, line of sight based wireless
technology for data communication between devices.
The remote control of TV, AC works on the infrared data
communication principle.
IR uses infrared waves of the electromagnetic spectrum for
transmitting the data.
It supports point-point and point-to-multipoint communication.
The typical communication range for IR lies in the range of 10
cm to 1m.
The range can be increased by increasing the tranmitting
power of the IR device.
IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/sec to 16Mbps.

Embedded Firmware

UNIT II
Characteristics and Quality
Attributes of E.S

Embedded systems possess certain

specific characteristics and these are
unique to each embedded system.
1. Application and domain specific
2. Reactive and Real Time
3. Operates in harsh environments
4. Distributed
5. Small Size and weight
6. Power concerns

Application and Domain Specific

Each E.S has certain functions to
perform and they are developed in
such a manner to do the intended
functions only.
They cannot be used for any other
purpose.
Ex The embedded control units of
the microwave oven cannot be
replaced with ACS embedded control
unit because the embedded control
units of microwave oven and AC are
specifically designed to perform

Reactive and Real Time

E.S are in constant interaction with the real world through
sensors and user-defined input devices which are
connected to the input port of the system.
Any changes in the real world care captured by the
sensors or input devices in real time and the control
algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed
manner to bring the controlled output variables to the
desired level.
E.S produce changes in output in response to the changes
in the input, so they are referred as reactive systems.
Real Time system operation means the timing behaviour
of the system should be deterministic ie the system
should respond to requests in a known amount of time.
Example E.S which are mission critical like flight control
systems, Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) etc are Real Time
systems.

Operates in Harsh Environment

The design of E.S should take care of the
operating conditions of the area awhere
the system is going to implement.
Ex If the system needs to be deployed
in a high temperature zone, then all the
components used in the system should
be of high temperature grade.
Also proper shock absorption techniques
should be provided to systems which are
going to be commissioned in places
subject to high shock.

Distributed
It means that embedded systems
may be a part of a larger system.
Many numbers of such distributed
embedded systems form a single
large embedded control unit.
Ex Automatic vending machine. It
contains a card reader , a vending
unit etc. Each of them are
independent embedded units but
they work together to perform the
overall vending function.

Small Size and Weight

Product
aesthetics(size,weight,shape,style,et
c) is an important factor in choosing
a product.
It is convenient to handle a compact
device than a bulky product.
In embedded domain compactness is
a significant deciding factor.

Power Concerns
Power management is another
important factor that needs to be
considered in designing embedded
systems.
E.S should be designed in such a way
as to minimize the heat dissipation
by the system.

Quality Attributes of Embedded

System
Quality attributes are the non-functional
requirements that need to be documented
properly in any system design.
Quality attributes can be classified as
Operational quality attributes and nonoperational quality attributes.

Quality Attributes of E.S

Operation Q.A

Non-Operational Q.A

Response

Testability and Debugability

Throughput

Evolvability

Reliability

Portability

Maintainability

Time to Prototype and

Market

Security
Safety

Per Unit and Total Cost

Operational Quality
Attributes
The operational quality attributes represent the
relevant quality attributes related to the embedded
system when it is in the operational mode or online
mode.
Operational Q.A are:
Response
It is the measure of quickness of the system.
It tells how fast the system is tracking the changes in
input variables.
Most of the E.S demand fast response which should be
almost real time.
Ex Flight control application.

Throughput
It deals with the efficiency of a system.
It can be defined as the rate of production
or operation of a defined process over a
stated period of time.
Ex In case of card reader throughput
means how many transactions the reader
can perform in a minute or in an hour or
in a day.
Throughput is generally measured in
terms of Benchmark.
A Benchmark is a reference point by
which something can be measured.

Reliability
It is a measure of how much we can rely
upon the proper functioning of the system.
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are the terms
used in determining system reliability.
MTBF gives the frequency of failures in
hours/weeks/months.
MTTR specifies how long the system is
allowed to be out of order following a failure.
For embedded system with critical
application need, it should be of the order of
minutes.

Maintainability
It deals with support and maintenance to
the end user or client in case of technical
issues and product failure or on the basis
of a routine system checkup.
Reliability and maintainability are
complementary to each other.
A more reliable system means a system
with less corrective maintainability
requirements and vice versa.
As the reliability of the system of the
system increases the chances of failure
and non-functioning also reduces thereby
the need for maintainability is also
reduced.

Security
Confidentiality, Integrity and
availability are the three major
measures of information security.
Confidentiality deals with protection
of data and application from
unauthorized disclosure.
Integrity deals with the protection of
data and application from
unauthorized modification.
Availability deals with protection of
data and application from
unauthorized users.

Safety
Safety deals with the possible damages
that can happen to the operator, pubic
and the environment due to the
breakdown of an E.S .
The breakdown of an embedded system
may occur due to a hardware failure or a
firmware failure.
Safety analysis is a must in product
engineering to evaluate the anticipated
damages and determine the best course
of action to bring down the consequences
of the damages to an acceptable level.

Non-Operational Quality
Attributes
The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the
product not on the basis of operational aspects are
grouped under this category.
Testability and Debug-ability
Testability deals with how easily one can test the
design, application and by which means it can be done.
For an E.S testability is applicable to both the
embedded hardware and firmware.
Embedded hardware testing ensures that the
peripherals and total hardware functions in the desired
manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the
firmware is functioning in the expected way.

Evolvability
It is a term which is closely related to Biology.
It is referred as the non-heritable variation.
For an embedded system evolvability refers
to the ease with which the embedded product
can be modified to take advantage of new
firmware or hardware technology.
Portability It is the measure of system independence.
An embedded product is said to be portable if
the product is capable of functioning in
various environments, target processors and
embedded operating systems.

Time-to-Prototype and Market

It is the time elapsed between the
conceptualisation of a product and the
time at which the product is ready for
selling.
Per Unit Cost and Revenue
Cost is a factor which is closely
monitored by both end user and
product manufacturer.
Any failure to position the cost of a
commercial product at a nominal
rate may lead to the failure of the
product in the market.