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Generally, data collected from different sources

are usually unorganized and a form unsuitable for
immediate interpretation. In any statistical
investigation, once pertinent data are already
gathered, the next step is to present such data in
organized form using appropriate tables and graphs.
In this chapter, we will consider tabular
presentation through frequency distribution and
different methods of graphical presentation.

SUB TOPICS:

A. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
B. CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
C. DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
D. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Table 2.1
Test Scores Obtained by the Sixty Students in a Statistics
Class
48

73

57

57

69

88

11

80

82

47

46

70

49

45

75

81

33

65

38

59

94

59

62

36

58

69

45

55

58

65

30

49

73

29

41

53

37

35

61

48

22

51

56

55

60

37

56

59

57

36

12

36

50

63

68

30

56

70

53

28

* Notice that in Table 2.1, no trend or pattern in the scores of the students is evident.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
* Table 2.1 can be presented in a frequency distribution as shown.

Table 2.2
The Frequency Distribution of the Examination Results of Sixty Students
in Statistics Class
Exam Scores

Number of Students

11 22

23 34

35 46

11

47 58

19

59 70

14

71 82

83 94

n = 60
* From Table 2.2, we can say that 3 out of 60 students got scores ranging from
11 to 22. Nineteen students got scores from 47 to 58 and only 2 were able to
get scores ranging from 83 to 94.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Now, what if the students are classified according to their respective courses? See
Table 2.3.

Table 2.1
The Frequency Distribution of the Sixty Students in Statistics
Grouped according to their Respective Courses
Courses

Number of Students

AB Mass Comm.

12

BS Food Sci.

25

AB Pol Sci.

15

BS Journ.

AB Eco.

2
n = 60

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
In a frequency distribution, the data are summarized into
classes or categories to show the frequency of occurrence of the
values or objects in each class or category.
Classification:
1. Quantitative Frequency Distribution data are grouped
according to
numerical intervals or classes as in
Table 2.2
2. Qualitative Frequency Distribution data are tabulated in
terms of
categories as in Table 2.3

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Components of Quantitative Frequency Distribution: (Visible)

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Components

of Quantitative Frequency Distribution:

(Computational)
Midpoint/Class mark serves as the representative of the given interval.
is obtained by adding the class limits and then dividing
the sum by two.
where

x is the midpoint
L1 is the lower limit
U1 is the upper limit

To illustrate, consider again the interval 11 22 of Table 2.2. To get the

class mark or midpoint of this interval, we shall have

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Class Boundaries (Lower Class Boundary & Upper Class
Boundary)
commonly known as true limit
refers to the value midway between the upper
limit of a certain interval and the lower limit of the
next.
If the class limits are whole numbers, then the boundary of each
interval can be obtained by simply adding +0.5 to the upper limit and
subtracting 0.5 to the lower limit
To illustrate, in the interval 11 22, the class boundaries shall be
11 0.5 = 10.5
22 + 0.5 = 22.5

(Lower Class Boundary)

(Upper Class Boundary)

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Class Width the size of the class interval; represented by c
can be obtained using several methods:
1st

This value can be obtained by getting the difference

between the boundaries of a particular class.

To illustrate, in the interval 23 34, the class boundaries are 22.5

and 34.5.
Thus,
c = 34.5 22.5 = 12

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
2nd

The size of the class interval can also be obtained by

getting the difference between two successive upper limits
or two successive lower limits.

For example, if we take 58 and 70, the difference between this

two successive upper limits is our class width
c = 70 58 = 12
If we consider two successive lower limits 23 and 35, the
difference,
c = 35 23 = 12

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Notice that there are a lot of ways on how to get the size of
the class interval. Any of these methods, however, will give us
the same value since the size of the class interval must be
constant throughout the distribution. Thus, if the size of the
interval for the first class is 12, then the size of the succeeding
interval should also be equal to 12. Although there are instances
where a distribution might contain classes with different sizes of
interval, such type of distribution is intended for presentation
purposes only.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
* We can now reproduce the distribution in Table 2.2 to include the notations we
introduced and the class boundaries and class marks or midpoints of the
corresponding class intervals.

Table 2.4
The Frequency Distribution of the Examination Scores of
Sixty Students in a Statistics Class
Classes

Class Boundaries

11 22

16.5

10.5 22.5

23 34

28.5

22.5 34.5

35 46

11

40.5

34.5 46.5

47 58

19

52.5

46.5 58.5

59 70

14

64.5

58.5 70.5

71 82

76.5

70.5 82.5

83 94

88.5

82.5 94.5

n = 60

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

We will now consider the procedure on how to construct a
frequency distribution. The construction of this distribution is
very simple activity that requires the following steps.
1. Get the lowest and the highest value in the distribution. We
shall let H and L be the highest and the lowest value in the
distribution respectively.
2. Get the value of the range. The range denoted by R, refer to
the difference between the highest and the lowest value in
the distribution. Thus,
R=HL

EQN 2.2

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

3. Determine the number of classes. In the determination of the
number of classes, it should be noted that there is no standard
method to follow. Generally, the number of classes must be not
be less than 5 and should not be more than 15. In some
instances, however, the number of classes can be approximated
by using the relation
k = 1 + 3.3 log n
where

EQN 2.3

k is the number of classes

n is the sample size

* If the answer for k contains decimal, use the number next to the
whole number.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

4.

Determine the size of the class interval. The value of c can be

obtained by dividing the range by the desired number of
classes. Hence,

* If the answer for c contains decimal, use the number next to

the whole number.
5. Construct the classes. In constructing the classes, we first
determine the lowest lower limit of the distribution. The value of
this lower limit can be chosen arbitrarily as long as the lowest
value shall fall on the first interval and the highest value to the
last interval.
6. Determine the frequency of each class. The determination of
the number of frequencies is done by counting the number of
items that fall in each interval.

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Given a frequency distribution, we can construct
other frequency distribution like the

1.Relative Frequency Distribution

2.Cumulative Frequency Distribution

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Relative Frequency Distribution

Shows the proportion in percent the frequency of each
class to the total frequency.
Denoted by %f
Can be obtained by dividing the class frequency by the
sample size and multiplying the result by 100.
where

%f the relative frequency for each class interval

f the frequency of each class
n the sample size

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

For illustration purposes, let us consider the frequency

distribution in Table 2.2. The relative frequency of the frequency
of the first interval can be obtained as follows:
And the relative frequency of the interval 23 34 shall be

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

If we continue converting class frequencies to percent,
then we shall come up with the relative frequency distribution
below.
Classes
f
Classes
%f
11 22

11 22

5.00%

23 34

23 34

8.33%

35 46

11

35 46

18.33%

47 58

19

47 58

31.67%

59 70

14

59 70

23.33%

71 82

71 82

10.00%

83 94

83 94

3.33%

n = 60
Total = 99.99%

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

can be derived from the frequency distribution by simply
adding the class frequencies
determines the partial sums from the data classified in
terms of classes.
this distribution answers problem like the number of
students who got a passing mark

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

There are two types of cumulative frequency distribution. These
are as follows:

1. Less than cumulative frequency distribution

refers to the distribution whose frequencies are less than or
below the upper class boundary they correspond to. We shall
let <cumf be the less than cumulative frequency.

2. Greater than cumulative frequency distribution

refers to the distribution whose frequencies are greater
than or above the lower class boundary they correspond to.
We shall let >cumf be the greater than cumulative
frequency.

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution

Classes

Less Than Cumulative

Classes

<cumf

11 22

11 22

23 34

23 34

35 46

11

35 46

19

47 58

19

47 58

38

59 70

14

59 70

52

71 82

71 82

58

83 94

83 94

60

n = 60

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution

Classes

Greater Than Cumulative

Classes

>cumf

11 22

11 22

60

23 34

23 34

57

35 46

11

35 46

52

47 58

19

47 58

41

59 70

14

59 70

22

71 82

71 82

83 94

83 94

n = 60

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Less Than Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Greater Than

Classes

<cumf

Classes

>cumf

11 22

11 22

60

23 34

23 34

57

35 46

19

35 46

52

47 58

38

47 58

41

59 70

52

59 70

22

71 82

58

71 82

83 94

60

83 94

V
S

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Graphical Presentation

refers to the pictorial representation of data

enables the researcher to see at a glance the general
characteristics and special features of such data
reduction into visual form, therefore, often leads to the
greater understanding that could facilitate the solution of the
problem
Different Methods of Data Presentation:
1. Histogram
2. Frequency Polygon
3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive
4. Pie Graph

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Histogram

refers to a data presentation that uses bars in

presenting the frequencies of each class
usually presented in quadrant I of a two
dimensional coordinate system
generally, the horizontal axis represents the
classes and the vertical axis represents the frequency

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
Histogram of the Examination Results of Sixty Students in Statistics

19

14
11

5
3

2
Classes

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Frequency Polygon

In a frequency polygon, we assume that the

frequencies of each interval are concentrated at the
midpoint of each interval.
comparing to histogram, instead of drawing bars
to represent the interval, we simply make a dot above
the bar to represent the position of the midpoint within
the interval.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
The Frequency Polygon of the Examination Scores of the Sixty Students in Statistics

Class Mark

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

<Ogive and >Ogive

comparing to frequency polygon, instead of

plotting points corresponding to class marks and
frequencies, we plot points corresponding to class
boundaries and cumulative frequencies.
done to visually represent the number of cases
falling above or below particular values.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
The Graph of <Ogive and >Ogive of the Examination Scores of Sixty Students in Statistics

cu
mf

>Ogive

<Ogive

THE END

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