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FORMS OF ENERGY
AND THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
INTRODUCTION
E
m
kJ/kg
FORMS OF ENERGY
In thermodynamic analysis, it is often helpful to consider the
various forms of energy that make up the total energy of a
system in two groups: macroscopic and microscopic. The
macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as
kinetic and potential energies (Fig. 2.1). The microscopic forms
of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are
independent of outside reference frames. The sum of all the
microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U.
Kinetic Energy
The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and
the influence of some external effects such as gravity,
magnetism, electricity, and surface tension. The energy that a
system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE). When all parts of
a system move with the same velocity, the kinetic energy is
expressed as
KE = mv2
(kJ)
On a unit mass:
ke = v2
kJ/kg
Potential Energy
From the fundamentals of Mechanics, the energy possessed by
a body by virtue of its position or configuration is termed
potential energy (PE). The potential energy of a body of mass
m which is at an elevation z from the earths surface (or any
particular datum) is given by:
PE = mgz
(kJ)
On a unit mass:
pe = gz
kJ/kg
Internal Energy
Energy is also associated with the motion of the electrons, spin
of the electrons, intra-atomic (nucleus-electron, nucleusnucleus) interactions, etc. Molecules are also subject to intermolecular interactions which are electromagnetic in nature,
especially at short intermolecular separation distances. All
these forms of energy are microscopic in form and they cannot
be readily estimated in terms of macroscopically measurable
properties of matter.
Thus the energy possessed by matter due to the microscopic
modes of motion is referred to as the internal energy of the
matter.
The concept of internal energy was first demonstrated by the
British scientist James P. Joule during 1840s by a series of
carefully executed experiments.
On a sub-molecular scale energy is associated with the
electrons and nuclei of atoms, and with bond energy resulting
from the forces holding atoms together as molecules. With
Electrons also spin about their axes, and the energy associated
with this motion is the spin energy. Other particles in the
nucleus of an atom also possess spin energy.
= 112 yrs
which is equivalent to about 112 years. Considering that no car
will last more than 100 years, this car will never need refueling.
It appears that nuclear fuel of the size of a cherry is sufficient
to power a car during its lifetime.
U1
On a unit mass:
u = u2 u1
kJ/kg
kJ
Figure 2.3: Mass and energy flow rates associated with the flow
of steam in a pipe of inner diameter D with an average velocity
of Vavg.
Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy
that can be converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal
turbine. Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of
mechanical energy.
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its
pressure, and a turbine extracts mechanical energy from a
fluid by dropping its pressure. Therefore, the pressure of a
flowing fluid is also associated with its mechanical energy.
But a pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance
produces work, called flow work.
2
2
where p/ is the flow energy,
It can also be expressed in rate form
mech = emech = (
v
+2
2
+ gz)
v1 2
mech = [
p2 p1
v2
v12 2
+ g (z 2 z1)] kW
v2
( 8.5
= (
2
m/s)22
J/kg
) (2 2
m /s
) = 36.J/kg
) = 41.7 kW
WORK
W
Velocit
y
Piston
Gase
s
Cylinde
r
0
W = pA dx + (A/2) dp dx
W = pA dx
A.dx = dV
W = p dV
The total boundary work done during the entire process as the
piston moves is obtained by adding all the differential works
from the initial state to the final state:
W1 - 2 =
2
1
p dV
The states 1 and 2 in Fig. 2.6 (a) and (b) are identical, yet the
areas under the pV curves are very different; work depends on
the actual path that connects the two states. Thus, work is a
path function, as contrasted to a point function (that is
dependent only on the end points). The differential of a path
function is called an inexact differential, whereas the
differential of a point function is an exact differential. An
inexact differential will be denoted with the symbol .
r AdF =
r
2rdr = 2
r2 dr
0
0
T = A r dF = 2 0 r2 dr
Therefore,
= T
To find the work transferred in a given time t, we simply
multiply the above equation by the number of seconds:
W = Tt
The angular velocity must be expressed in rad/s. If it is
expressed in rev/min (rpm), multiply by 2 /60.
= 314.2 rad/s
Hence
= T = 100 314.2 = 31 420 W
hp
31
746
420
or
= 42.1
2
60
sec/min
rad/rev
= T
) = 83, 800 W
x2
F xdx =
1
x2
x1
Solution:
The pressure in the cylinder is initially found from a force
balance as shown on the free-body diagram:
p1 A = patm A + W
p1 x 0.052 m2 = 100 000 N/m2 x x 0.052 m2 + 50kg x 9.81
m/s2
p1 = 162 500 Pa
To raise the piston a distance of 50 mm, without the spring, the
pressure would be constant and the work required would be
force times distance:
W1 = pA d = 162 500 N/m2 x ( x 0.052) m2 x 0.05m = 63.81 J
the work required to compress the spring is calculated to be
W2 = k (x22 x12) = (10 000 N/m) (0.052) m2 = 12.5 J
Solution:
The additional power required is simply the work that needs to
be done per unit time to raise the elevation of the car, which is
equal to the change in the potential energy of the car per unit
time:
g = mgz/t = mgVvertical
Example 7. Determine the power required to accelerate a 900kg car shown in Fig. 2.11 from rest to a velocity of 80 km/h in
20 s on a level road.
80kg)
000
v1 2) = (900
[(
3600
m
sec
1 kJ/kg
) 2 02] x
1000 m2/s2
222
= 11.1 kW (14.9 hp)
kJ 20
sec
This is in addition to the power
required to overcome friction,
rolling resistance, and other imperfections.
HEAT
Energy transfer takes place between two bodies of different
temperatures until thermal equilibrium is established. The
direction of energy transfer is always from the higher
temperature body to the lower temperature one. Once the
temperature equality is established, energy transfer stops.
Energy is said to be transferred in the form of heat. Transfer of
energy that we cannot account for by any of the work modes is
called heat transfer.
Heat is transferred by
convection, and radiation.
three
mechanisms:
conduction,
In one dimension,
d
q = k
dx
t
If multiplied by the local cross-sectional area, = qA, and
d
= kA
dx
t
(Thot
~ kA
TcoldL
)
electromagnetic
waves (or photons). For some systems, the
radiative heat transfer rate is well modeled by
q = (Thot 4 Tcold4)
= qA = A (Thot 4 Tcold4)
where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, = 5.67 10 8
W/m2/K4
Q = t 2dt
1
Notes of comparison:
Q and W as well as q and w are affiliated with transient
phenomena; both cross boundaries when the system changes
state.
Q and W as well as q and w only exist at system boundaries.
Q and W as well as q and w are both path-dependent, have
inexact differentials, and are not properties of the system.
Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction. The
generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows: heat transfer to a system and work
done by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system and
work done on a system are negative. Another way is to use the
subscripts in and out to indicate direction (Fig. 2.20).
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that work and heat are
mutually convertible. The present tendency is to include all
forms of energy. The First Law can be stated in many ways:
1. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is always
conserved. However, it can change from one form to
another.
2. All energy that goes into a system comes out in some form
or the other. Energy does not vanish and has the ability to
be converted into any other form of energy.
E = Eout Ein
The system is the mixture of reactants, and
the surroundings are the flask, the solvent,
the room and the rest of the universe.
=E
=E
dU = Q + W = Q 1 p
dV
U = Q W - Energy equation for a closed system
The statement, that the internal energy of a thermodynamic
system can be increased either by doing work or adding heat,
is the physical content of the first law of thermodynamics.
Various forms of the first-law relation for closed systems.
General:
Stationary systems:
Per unit mass:
Differential form:
Q W = E
Q W = U
q w = e
q w = de
Solution:
Let U2 be the final internal energy of the system
Ein Eout
Wsh,in
Esystem
Net
energy
transfer
by
heat, work and
mass
Qout = U = U2 U1
Change
in
potential,
kinetic, internal,
etc., energies
Solution:
Ein Eout
Rate of net
energy transfer
by heat, work
and mass
elect in = out
Esystem
Rate of change in
potential, kinetic,
internal, etc.,
energies
= UA (Ti To)
Then the amount and cost of electricity used per year become
Lighting energy = (Lighting power) x (Operating hours)
= 2.4 kW x 3000 h/year = 7200 kW-h /year
Lighting cost
W1 - 2 =
12p dV
W1 - 2 =1 p dV
W1 - 2 =
W1 - 2
; pV = C, then p =
2d
C
(
) dV = C
1
1
V
V
V
2
V2
= C ln
V1
Since
pV = C,
p1V1 = p2V2
C
V
V2
V1
V
= p2 V2 ln 2
V1
V 2 = 4 m3
3
4m
3
W1 - 2 = (200 x 10 3 N/m2) (2 m2m
) ln
3 (
277 kJ