Topic 1: Cell Biology

Harvard Animation
Why

are cells cool?

http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/

Cell Theory
Discuss the theory that living
organisms are composed of cells.
The Cell Theory states that:

All organisms are composed of one or more

cells.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
All vital functions of an organism occur
within cells.
Cells are the most basic unit of life.
Cells contain hereditary information. Why?

Evidence for Cell Theory

What is Evidence?
What is a theory?
Evidence for Cell theory:
Living tissues= composed of cells
Cells of an organism can
sometimes survive on their own
but smaller cell components can
NOT.
Classic experiments showed that
spontaneous generation of life
does NOT happen.

Nature of Science (Cell Theory Trends and

Discrepancies)
Exceptions to aspects of Cell theory (Evaluate)
Striated Skeletal Muscle multinucleate
cytoplasm, longer than typical cells

 Some

fungal hyphae- multinucleate

cytoplasm.

Giant Algae Single

nucleus but much larger
than a typical cell (up to
100mm)
Extracellular material
(material outside the
cell membrane), such as
teeth and bone, forms a
significant part of the
body.

Discuss: Do you think

these constitute
exceptions to cell
theory? Justify your
answer.

Unicellular organisms
carry out ALL the
functions of life.
What are the necessary
functions of life?
Metabolism
Response to stimuli
Homeostasis
Growth/development
Reproduction
Nutrition
Excretion of wastes

Application: Functions of life in unicellular organisms

Example 1: Paramecium
(mandatory!)

Function

Example

Metabolism

enzymes in cytoplasm, protein

synthesis, etc.

Response to
stimuli

uses cilia to move toward or

away from stimuli

Homeostasis

contractile vacuoles maintain

water balance

Growth and
development

It grows and changes!

Reproduction

Both asexual (mitosis) and

sexual

Nutrition

Heterotrophic (eats smaller

organisms)

Excretion of
wastes

Expels wastes (ex. CO2) via

diffusion.

Application: Functions of life in unicellular organisms

Example 2: Chlorella (a type of unicellular algae) Note:

must have unicellular photosynthetic organism

Function

Example

Metabolism

enzymes, protein synthesis,

PHOTOSYNTHESIS etc.

Response to
stimuli

Photosynthetic rate changes

in response to light

Homeostasis

Regulate passage of materials

across cell membrane

Growth and
development

It grows and changes!

Reproduction

asexual

Nutrition

Autotrophic (Photosynthetic)

Excretion of
wastes

Expels wastes (ex. O2) via

diffusion.

Cell Size
Discuss:

How big are cells?

Image: National Institutes of Health

Not in New Syllabus:

Compare the relative sizes of molecules,
cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using
appropriate SI units.
Molecules (1 nm) (Smallest)
Cell membrane thickness (10 nm)
Viruses (100 nm)
Bacteria (1 m)
Organelles (<10 m)
Most cells (<100 m) (Largest)
Interactive http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm

 Calculate

linear
magnification of
drawings.
Scale

bars:
ex.
= 1 m
Magnification:
250
To calculate
magnification:
Magnification =
Measured Size of
Diagram Actual
Size of Object

Explain the importance

of the surface area to
volume ratio as a factor
limiting cell size.

The rate of
exchange of
materials
(nutrients/waste)
and energy (heat) is
a function of its
surface area.
(Why?)
As cell size
increases, the
surface area to
volume ratio
decreases
This can make
the exchange
rate inadequate
for large cells
Cell size, therefore,
remains small

So, Cells cant be very big!

Giant alien amoeba

movie = not
accurate

Discussion
If

cells must be small, how is it

possible for organisms to be large?

Explain that cells in

multicellular
organisms
differentiate to
carry out
specialized
functions by
expressing some of
their genes but not
others.
Differentiation:
becoming specialized
in structure and
function. (due to gene
expression)
Results in specialized
tissues
Supporting examples?
Multicellular organisms
show emergent
properties (What??)

Video: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/archive/title-m-z.html

Define tissue, organ

and organ system.

Tissue: An integrated
group of cells that
share stucture and are
adapted to perform a
similar function.
Organ: A combination
of two or more tissues
which function as an
integrated unit,
performing one or more
specific functions.
Organ system: A
group of organs that
specialize in a certain
function together.

STEM CELLS

Stem cells
Retain the capacity to
divide*
Able to differentiate
along different
pathways*

*The above
characteristics are
necessary for
embryonic
development and make
stem cells suitable for
some therapies

Therapeutic Use of Stem Cells

Many possibilities (in research phase) to repair damaged tissues

etc.
Actual uses
Restore neural insulation tissue in rats.
Embryonic stem cells to treat Stargardts macular dystrophy
(an eye disease).
Stem cells from umbilical cord blood or from bone marrow
for leukemia patients.

Application: Stargardts disease (mandatory)

Background: Stargardts disease

the most common form of inherited juvenile macular degeneration.

progressive vision loss
death of photoreceptor cells in the macula (central part of the retina)
Due to mutation in a gene that controls a transport protein in retinal cells.

Stem Cell Treatment:

Injection of retinal cells
(derived from embryonic
stem cells)
Encouraging results:
No rejection, no tumors,
vision improvement as
retinal cells attached

Application: Leukemia

Background: Leukemia
A cancer in bone marrow that
produces excessive white blood cells

Stem Cell Treatment:

1. Extract healthy bone
marrow fluid (usually
from pelvis)
2. Extract stem cells and
freeze them
3. Chemotherapy to kill
cancer cells
4. Return stem cells to
bone.
5. Cures leukemia in many
cases

Sources and Ethical Issues (see p. 15 of book for

more)
Sources and
ethical/technical issues:
Embryonic
placenta/umbilical
cord
Many other tissues
have stem cells
totipotent/omnipotent
vs. Pluripotent

Video (Stem Cells Breakthrough):

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/scienc
enow/archive/title-m-z.html

Microscopy and Types of Cells

Explain three
advantages of
using light
microscopes.
color instead of
monochrome (black
and white) images.
large field of view.
Facilitate preparation
of sample material.
Allow for the
examination of living
material and the
observation of
movement.
Relatively
inexpensive

Outline the advantages of using

electron microscopes.
1) higher resolution and magnification than light
microscopes.
Resolution refers to the ability to distinguish two objects
as separate entities.
Magnification refers to the ability to increase the size of
a viewed object.
2) Allow us to see cell ultrastructure.
Types of Electron Microscopes:
Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) provide images of the
specimen's surface
Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) provide images of
a sample's interior. The resolution of an SEM is
approximately half that of a TEM.

TEM

SEM

Prokaryotic Cells
Simple

cell Structure
No Compartmentalization (No
Nucleus, no membrane-bound
organelles)

Prokaryotic Cells

Draw a generalized
prokaryotic cell as seen in
electron micrographs
The diagram should include:
the cell wall,
plasma membrane,
cytoplasm,
Pili
Flagella
Ribosomes (70S)
nucleoid ( region
containing naked DNA).

 State one function for each of

the following: the cell wall,
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, Pili
Flagella, Ribosomes, nucleoid

Cell Wall: Maintains the

cell's shape and give
protection.
Plasma Membrane:
Regulates the flow of
materials (nutrients,
waste, oxygen, etc.) into
and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: Holds and
suspends the cell's
ribosomes and enzymes.
Pili: Adhering to surfaces
Flagella: Motility
Ribosome: Protein
synthesis.
Nucleoid region: Contains
the cell's genetic material
(naked DNA)

Binary Fission

Prokaryotic cells
divide by binary
fission
Asexual
splits directly into
two equal-sized
offspring, each with
a copy of the
parent's genetic
material.

State that prokaryotes

show a wide range of
metabolic activity including
fermentation,
photosynthesis and
nitrogen fixation. (note:

old syllabus

from
EX.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)--photosynthesis.
Bacteria can convert organic
substances into other organic
substances. (i.e., glucose to
lactic acid during
anaerobic respiration)
Nitrogen fixation convert N2
in air to ammonia.

Cyanobacteria

Video:

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/34
01/04.html

Bacteria

Eukaryotic Cells
More

complex cell Structure

Compartmentalization

Eukaryotic Cells

Draw a diagram to
show the
ultrastructure of
a generalized
animal cell (liver
cell) as seen in
electron
micrographs.
Should include free
ribosomes, rough
and smooth ER,
lysosome, Golgi
apparatus,
mitochondria, and
nucleus.

An Animal Cell

 Define

organelle.
An organelle is a
discrete structure
within a cell, and
has a specific
function.

State one function of each of these

organelles: ribosomes, rough
endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosome, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondrion and nucleus.

Nucleus: contains genetic

material
Ribosomes (80S): protein
synthesis
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER): Packages
proteins
Golgi apparatus: Modifies,
stores and routes products of
the endoplasmic reticulum.
Lysosome: digests old cell
parts, macromolecules (food)
and engulfed viruses/bacteria
Mitochondrion: cellular
respiration.

Explain how vesicles are

used to transport
materials within a cell
between the rough
endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, and
plasma membrane.
Proteins synthesized by
ribosomes
enter the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
Vesicles bud from rER and
carry the proteins to the
Golgi apparatus.
Golgi apparatus modifies
the proteins.
Vesicles bud off from the
Golgi apparatus and carry
the modified proteins to
the plasma membrane.

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/vesicl

Skill: Interpret electron micrographs

ID organelles

Deduce function of specialized cells

Hints
Lysosomes

= dark circles
Vesicles or vacuoles= light circles
Golgi = surrounded by vesicles, with
separate sacs
Mitochondria= look for cristae (folds
of inner membrane)

ER vs. Golgi

Plant Cell (Palisade mesophyll

for example)_

lysosomes

Liver cell electron micrographs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Nucleus
Mitochondria
Cell border
Nucleoli
Red blood cell

Types of Eukaryotic Cells: Plant

vs. Animal Cells
(not in syllabus directly)

Look

at the diagrams of plant and

animal cell diagrams(see p. 114/ch.7
of Campbell)
What differences do you see?

Describe three differences between plant

and animal cells.
(not in syllabus directly)

Only plant cells have:

Cell walls
Chloroplasts
Large central vacuoles and
tonoplast
Plasmodesmata
Starch granules for storage of
carbohydrates

Only animal cells have:

Centrioles
Lysosomes
Glycogen for storage of carbohydrate
Also: Plant cells usually have much
less cholesterol in their plasma
membranes.

Roles of extracellular components

(2.3.6)
(not in syllabus directly)

Animal

cells

Extracellular
matrix (secreted
glycoproteins)
Support
Adhesion
Movement

Plant

cell wall
(see next slides)

Plant cell wall

(not in syllabus directly)

Main component= cellulose

gives the cell wall great tensile strength and
allows high pressures to develop inside the cell.
Functions= structure, support, protection.

Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic

*Contain naked DNA

*DNA in cytoplasm (NO
Nucleus)
*No membrane-enclosed
organelles
*70S ribosomes

*DNA associated with

protein
*DNA enclosed in a nuclear
envelope (Nucleus)
*membrane-enclosed
organelles
*80S ribosomes

Function of Plasma Membrane

*It controls what enters and leaves the cell.
*It is semi-permeable (selectively permeable)
allowing passage of some materials but not
others.

Draw a diagram
of the fluid
mosaic model.
http://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=Q
qsf_UJcfBc
Diagram should
show
the
phospholipid
bilayer,
cholesterol,
glycoproteins,
Integral proteins
peripheral
proteins.

Membranes

Explain how the hydrophobic and

hydrophilic properties of phospholipids
help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes.
Phospholipids are
amphipathic (has
hydrophilic and hydrophobic
parts)
Hydrophilic
-water loving
-phosphate heads
Hydrophobic
-water-fearing
-fatty acid tails
Causes formation of bilayer

Cholesterol
helps stabilize the phospholipids
Reduces fluidity of membrane
Reduces permeability to some solutes

Carbohydrates and glycoproteins

help with cell communication and
recognition

Functions of membrane proteins

Hormone binding sites.

Enzymes
Cell adhesion
Attachment to the
cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix

Cell communication
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition

Channels for passive

transport
Pumps for active
transport.
Electron carriers

Nature of Science

The current model of membrane structure just

discussed is the fluid mosaic model or SingerNicholson model.
Models are representations of the real world and
can be replaced or modified as new evidence is
found.

Nature of Science

Before the Singer-Nicholson model (1966),

there was the Davson-Danielli (1930s) model.
Use the diagram below to describe this model
in your notes

Nature of Science

Rationale for Davson-Danielli

Model
Proteins look dark in electron
micrographs
Two dark lines in membrane
thought to be protein layers
Seemed to explain how
membranes could be effective
barriers, despite being thin

A micrograph from a Transmission Electron Micrograph showing a

lipid vesicle. The two dark bands are the two leaflets comprising the
bilayer.

Nature of Science

Falsification of Davson-Danielli
Model
Freeze-etched electron micrographs

Showed proteins embedded in membrane

Structure of membrane proteins =

globular and varied in size (not
likely to form layers)
Have hydrophobic regions
Fluorescent antibody tagging of
proteins = showed that proteins
moved in membrane (not in static
layers)

Membrane Transport

Define diffusion

Diffusion: the
passive
movement of
particles from a
region of higher
concentration to
a region of lower
concentration,
as a result of the
random motion
Animation
of particles.
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495

855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_

Define Osmosis
Osmosis: the passive movement of
water molecules, across a
selectively permeable membrane,
from a region of lower solute
concentration to a region of higher
solute concentration. (i.e. the
diffusion of water)
Remember: Lower solute
concentration = higher water
concentration!!!

Osmolarity
the concentration of a solution expressed as the total

number of solute particles per liter (units = Osmol/Liter)

Note:

usually the same as Molarity unless the solute dissociates (see next slide)

Terms to describe relative osmolarity:

Hypertonic (hyperosmotic)= higher solute concentration
Hypotonic (hypoosmotic) = lower solute concentration
Isotonic (isoosmotic) = equal solute concentration

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/si
tes/0072495855/student_view0/chapt
er2/animation__how_osmosis_works.h
tml

Skip for students: How to

calculate
osmolarity
An osmole (Osmol) is 1 mol of particles that contribute

to the osmotic pressure of a solution.

If your substance does not dissociate into ions, 1 osmole
= 1 mole
If your substance does dissociate into ions, the number
of osmoles is different.
Example: NaCl dissociates completely in water to form Na + ions
and Cl ions.
Thus, each mole of NaCl becomes two osmoles in solution: one
mole of Na+ and one mole of Cl.
A solution of 1 mol/L NaCl has an osmolarity of 2 Osmol/L.

http://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-c

alculate-osmolarity-of-a-solution

Osmosis is important!
A report in the 23 April 1998 issue of The New England
Journal of Medicine tells of the life-threatening
complications that can be caused by an ignorance of
osmosis.
Large volumes of a solution of 5% human albumin are
injected into people undergoing a procedure called
plasmapheresis.
The albumin is dissolved in physiological saline (0.9% NaCl)
and is therefore isotonic to human plasma (the large protein
molecules of albumin have only a small osmotic effect).
If 5% solutions are unavailable, pharmacists may substitute
a proper dilution of a 25% albumin solution. Mixing 1 part of
the 25% solution with 4 parts of diluent results in the correct
5% solution of albumin.
BUT, in several cases, the diluent used was sterile water, not
physiological saline.
SO, the resulting solution was strongly hypotonic to human
plasma.
The Result: massive, life-threatening hemolysis in the
patients.
Retrieved from: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/Diffusion.html

Application: Tissue and Organ Transplants

Organs

and tissues must be bathed

in a solution with same osmolarity as
the cytoplasm (to prevent osmosis).

Skill: Estimate Osmolarity

Note:

usually youll use a best-fit line

or curve

Explain passive transport across membranes in terms

of diffusion.

Simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion.

No ATP used
Channel proteins
(integral membrane
proteins)
Down concentration/
electrochemical gradient
Specific
ex. Ion Channels in
neurons

Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in

active transport across membranes.

Active transport is the

movement of substances
across membranes using
energy from ATP.

moves substances against a

concentration gradient.

Carrier proteins protein

pumps

Types of transport Animations

F:\Desktop\animations from bio

powerpoints\Chapter 08 BDOL IC

Application: Active Transport in Neurons

Sodium-Potassium Pump
Uses 1 ATP to pump 3 sodium ions out of cell
and 2 potassium ions into cell.
Using the diagram below, describe structure
and function of the Sodium-potassium pump.

Application: Facilitated Diffusion in Neurons

Focus: Potassium Channels
Specificity due to size of channel and chemical
properties of amino acids in the pore (that potassium
binds to)
Voltage-gated: Only open when cell is positively
charged
Close rapidly using ball and chain mechanism (shown
below)
Overall shape of protein also shuts channel but takes
longer

Endocytosis
Describe how the fluidity of the membrane
allows it to change shape, break and reform
during endocytosis
In endocytosis part of
the plasma membrane
is pulled inwards.
The particle is taken
in and becomes
enclosed when a
vesicle is pinched off.
Vesicle can then
move through the
cytoplasm carrying its
contents.

Exocytosis
Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to
change shape, break and reform during exocytosis.

http://highered.mhe
ducation.com/olcwe
b/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?
it=swf::535::535::/
sites/dl/free/007243
7316/120068/bio02.
swf::Endocytosis+an
d+Exocytosis

In exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane.

The contents of the vesicles are then expelled. The
membrane flattens out again.

Utilization: Kidney dialysis mimics kidney function by using

appropriate membranes and diffusion gradients
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=IQKQ4eoKfTg
4.5 min video

http://www.muschealth.
com/video/Default.aspx
?
videoId=10098&cId=24
&type=rel shorter video
(1:45 min)

http://www.howstuffworks.com/question17.htm

1.5 The Origin of Cells

Understanding 1:
Cells can only be formed by
division of pre-existing cells
(Cell Theory)
Review

Pasteurs experimental
evidence (discuss).
Spontaneous generation does
not now occur on earth.

1.5 The Origin of Cells

Understanding 2:
The first cells must have
arisen from non-living
material.
Hypothesized to have
occurred over hundreds of
millions of years (in
stages)
One key line of evidence=
universal genetic code
(with some minor
variations)

In the news: Artificial Life

(Evaluate)

Necessary Events for Origin of Cells

(Hypothetical)

Production of

simple organic
molecules (amino
acids, sugars,
etc.)
Miller-Urey
Experiment
Produced some
organic
molecules
(including some
amino acids).

Necessary Events for Origin of Cells

(Hypothetical)

Polymer assembly
(DNA, proteins etc.)
Hypothesis:
Deep sea vents may
have provided
energy for
polymerization

Necessary Events for Origin of Cells

(Hypothetical)

Membrane formation
Hypothesis:
Phospholipids
formed bilayers to
make small
membrane-enclosed
areas with different
internal chemistry
compared to
environment.

Necessary Events for Origin of Cells

(Hypothetical)

Development of hereditary molecules

Problem: DNA requires protein enzymes to replicate,
but instructions for proteins are encoded by DNA
Hypothesis:
RNA may have been first genetic material since it
can act as a catalyst as well as confer genetic info.

1.5 The Origin of Cells

Understanding

3:

The origin of eukaryotic cells can be

explained by endosymbiotic theory.

Endosymbiotic Theory
The idea: Larger prokaryotes ingested smaller

prokaryotes that have evolved into mitochondria and

chloroplasts.

Endosymbiotic Theory Evidence

Both mitochondria and chloroplasts:
Have their own circular naked DNA (like bacteria)
Have their own 70S ribosomes
Use their DNA and RNA to synthesize some of their own proteins
Can only reproduce by division (binary fission)
But not capable of living on their own

TOK Connection
Biology

is the study of life, yet life is

an emergent property. Under what
circumstances is a systems approach
productive in biology and under what
circumstances is a reductionist
approach more appropriate? How do
scientists decide between competing
approaches?

1.6 Cell Division

Essential idea
Cell Division is
essential but
must be
controlled.
Discuss: Why is
it essential?
Why must it
be controlled?

Growth, tissue repair, and asexual

reproduction involve cell division/mitosis.

Cell Division
The cell-division cycle
(cell cycle) involves
interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis.
Cell Cycle:
Interphase: normal cell life
and metabolism.
Mitosis: Division of the
nucleus into two genetically
identical daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis: The cell finishes
dividing and the cytoplasm
splits between the two
daughter cells. Usually
happens after mitosis

The Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis,

Cytokinesis)

F:\Desktop\animations from bio

powerpoints\Chapter 08 BDOL IC

Interphase is an active period in the

life of a cell when many processes
occur:
Examples:
DNA

Replication
protein synthesis (transcription and
translation)
Increase in number of mitochondria and/or
chloroplasts etc.

Interphase continued

Stages of Interphase
G1 = growth of cell, protein synthesis
S = replication of DNA
G2 = growth of cell, increase in organelles,
preparation for cell division.

Describe the events that occur in the four

phases of mitosis

Prophase

Chromatin supercoils
to form distinct
chromosomes.
(Each chromosome
contains two identical
sister chromatids,
attached to each
other at the
centromere region.)

the mitotic spindle

(made from
microtubules) starts
growing (going from
pole to pole).
The nuclear envelope
breaks down.

Describe the events that occur in the

four phases of mitosis
each chromosome
attaches to two
spindle microtubules
(one going to each
pole) at the
centromere.
Individual
chromosomes line up
at the equator

some microtubules are attached to

chromosomes and reach to the
equator; others go from pole to pole.

Describe the events that occur in the

four phases of mitosis

Anaphase
the spindle
microtubules
pull the sister
chromatids to
opposite poles
each sister
chromatid
becomes one
new
chromosome of
the daughter
cell.

Telophase

each sister chromatid (now called a chromosome), reaches its

pole
nuclear envelope re-forms.
Spindle microtubles deteriorate.
Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin

Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) takes place.

Summary of
Mitosis

Summary of mitosis continued

The Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis,

Cytokinesis)

F:\Desktop\animations from bio

powerpoints\Chapter 08 BDOL IC

Explain to your partner be

prepared to share

Explain

how mitosis produces

two genetically identical nuclei.
(an IB standard)

Skill: ID
phases of
mitosis in
electron
micrographs/
microscope
images

Outline the differences in

mitosis and cytokinesis
between animal and plant
cells. (limit this to the lack
of the centrioles in plant cells
and the formation of the cell
wall.)
Animals:
Centrioles
No cell wall
Plants:
No centrioles
Cell wall (cell plate) is
formed between cells as
vesicles transport cell wall
materials to middle.

Cell Cycle Control

Discuss: Why is this important?

Cyclins= Proteins that control the cell cycle.

Cyclins must reach a threshold concentration in
order for the cell to progress to the next stage of
the cell cycle.
Animation:
http://highered.mheducation.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?
it=swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/0072437316/120082/bio34a.swf::Control%20of%20the%20Cell
%20Cycle

Nature of Science: Serendipity

The discovery of cyclins was accidental.
While researching sea urchin egg protein
synthesis, Tim Hunt noticed an protein being
made and broken down at times correlated
TOK Discuss: Is it just luck?
with cell cycle events.

Tumors are the result of

uncontrolled cell division
and can occur in any
organ.

Tumor: a mass of tissue

caused by abnormal cell
growth and division
benign (dont spread)
malignant (do
spread). Malignant
tumors are called
cancers.
Cancer cells do not
respond to cell cycle
regulation.

How do Cancers form?

Transformation results from successive mutations

Mutagens agents that cause mutations (ex. high-energy
radiation or certain chemicals)
Oncogenes: Genes that can cause cancer if mutated (b/c they
normally help control the cell cycle.)
Metastasis spreading of cancer cells to other areas
The primary tumor is the original tumor. As a result of
metastasis, secondary tumors will form in other areas of
the body.
Good animation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEpTTolebqo

Skill: Determine Mitotic Index

Mitotic

index =

Utilization: Mitotic Index

The

mitotic index is an important

prognostic tool for predicting the
response of cancer cells to chemo.

Cancer Warrior Video

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/canc

er/ (Cancer Warrior angiogenesis

resources)
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/

nova/cancer/program.html

(Video: Cancer Warrior-angiogenesis)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/canc
er/grows.html

Application:
Smoking and
Cancer
Correlations

https://common
s.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Cancer
_smoking_lung_
cancer_correlati
on_from_NIH.sv
g

Correlation vs. causation

Correlation= an apparent relationship between
variables.
Causation = a relationship between variables in
which changes in one variable cause changes in the
other variable.
Is there a causal relationship between smoking and
lung cancer? What about smoking and other
cancers?

End of IB stuff

State that a virus is

a non-cellular
structure consisting
of DNA or RNA
surrounded by a
protein coat.
Characteristics of
Viruses

not considered living

no metabolism.
Unable to reproduce
without a host
Others?

International-mindedness

Biologists around
the world are
researching causes
and treatments of
cancer.

EUKARYOTE CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE

Practice: What are

the respective
magnifications of the
cell as a whole and of
each of its organelles
in the following cell
picture?

Summary of the major cell organelles:

ORGANELLE

MAIN
FUNCTIONS

DIMENSIONS

Nucleus

Cell division,
protein
synthesis

10 m diameter

Mitochondrion

Respiration
pathways

Chloroplast

Photosynthetic
pathways

Lysosome

Digestion,
recycling &
isolation

Golgi apparatus

Secretion,
reprocessing,
lysosome
synthesis

Cisternae:
0.5m thick, l3m diameter

Endoplasmic
Reticulum (ER)

Support, Golgi
apparatus
synthesis.

26 to 56 nm
thick

Ribosome

Protein
synthesis

1.0 to 12.5 m
5 to 10 m
diameter
0.5 to 3.0 m
diameter

20 nm diameter

State the composition and function of the plant cell wall. (SKIP
THIS SLIDE)
Three layers:

middle lamella (between adjacent cells attachment)

primary cell wall
secondary cell wall (stronger has lignin for strength)

Functions= structure, support, protection.