Geo 1641 2014

Learning Outcomes
In particular, student credited with this module will be able to:

1. Identify human induced factors responsible for

environmental deterioration
2. Apply theories linking human beings and the
environment in order to solve environmental
problems
3. Impact of the environment on population dynamics
4. To identify and study problems of major cities of the
world
5. Analysis of interprets development problems over
space and through time.
6. Understand relationship between gender social
development and economic growth

Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response

THE CONCEPT
ENVIRONMENT
Many people believe that human needs are
more important than the environment.
They say that our major aim must be
creating economic growth and jobs, and
that the green (environmental) agenda
must take second place.
Some people feel hurt or insulted when
others show concern over endangered
species like rhinos when children do not
have enough to eat.

 But, the environment is really the whole planet on

which we live. Everything (winds, tree, animals,
insects, people, etc) forms part of the living system of
earth. Because the earth has been so badly exploited
and not protected this has created changes in
weather patterns.
There are more droughts and more floods, good farm
land is turning into desert, the temperature is rising
and most important, the ozone layer that should
protect us from the dangerous rays of the sun has
been damaged and does not work as effectively as it
did before.
All this impacts on how people live and it is the reason
why people now talk about the term sustainable
development.

 All places on the earth have

advantages and disadvantages for
human settlement.
High population densities have
developed on flood plains, for
example, where people could take
advantage of fertile soils, water
resources, and opportunities for river
transportation.

 By comparison, population densities

are usually low in deserts. Yet flood
plains are periodically subjected to
severe damage, and some desert
areas, such as Israel, have been
modified to support large population
concentrations.

 A full understanding of the challenges

facing humanity requires knowledge
of the evolution of the roles of
technology, population expansions,
cultural way of life, climate, disease
and warfare in changing human
attitudes and responses through time.
This is especially the case if the past
is to be used in more sophisticated
ways than as a simplistic analogue of
projected future conditions.

 We also know that assessment of the sensitivity

or vulnerability of modern landscapes and
ecosystems to future human activities and
climate can be greatly improved by:
knowing the rates and directions of past
trajectories in key processes such as land
cover, soil erosion and flooding,
observing how thresholds have been
transgressed and deducing the natural or preimpact patterns of environmental variability.
Already, such knowledge is leading to the
improved formulation of resource management
strategies.

 The present nature and complexity of

socio-ecological systems are heavily
contingent on the past; we cannot fully
appreciate the present condition without
going back decades, centuries or even
millennia.
As we are witnessing today with global
warming, current societal actions may
reverberate, in climatic and many other
ways, for centuries into the future.

 If we continue to operate in
ignorance or denial of this integrated
historical understanding, we run the
very real risk.
But if we can adequately learn from
our integrated history, we can create
a sustainable and desirable future for
our species.

 Human history has traditionally been cast

in terms of the rise and fall of great
civilizations, wars, specific human
achievements, and extreme natural
disasters (e.g. earthquakes, floods,
plagues).
This history tends to leave out, however,
the important ecological and climatic
context and the less obvious interactions
which shaped and mediated these events.

 Socio-ecological systems are

intimately linked in ways that we are
only beginning to appreciate.
Furthering the research agenda on
such systems poses great
methodological challenges.
Events can be selectively chosen from
the past to support almost any theory
of historical causation.

 Human societies respond to environmental

(e.g., climate) signals through multiple
pathways including collapse or failure, migration
and creative invention through discovery.
Extreme drought, for instance, has triggered
both social collapse and ingenious management
of water through irrigation.
Human responses to change may in turn alter
feedbacks between climate, ecological, and
social systems, producing a complex web of
multidirectional connections in time and space.

 Ensuring appropriate future

responses and feedbacks within the
human-environment system will
depend on our understanding of this
past web and how to adapt to
future surprises.
To develop that understanding, we
need to look at multiple time and
space scales.

 At millennial timescales different cultural

elements (social and political structure,
traditional practices, and beliefs, to name a few)
enable or constrain responses. Even global-scale
events (climate change, major volcanic activity,
etc.) do not affect all regions at precisely the
same time or with the same intensity.
Models (conceptual and computational) of how
societal characteristics and environmental
conditions affect the resilience of socio-ecological
systems are needed.

 Processes important for the study of

resilience, vulnerability, or sustainability
include: the degree of rigidity of social,
economic, and political networks; the
diversity of biophysical resources and of
human resourcefulness; the development
of complexity, costliness and
ineffectiveness in problem-solving; and
the cyclical expansion/contraction and
geographical shift in the center of
accumulation with periodic declines and
dark ages when external limits to social
reproduction are reached.

 Simple, deterministic relationships

between environmental stress, (for
example, a climatic event), and social
change are inadequate.
Organizational, technological and
perceptual mechanisms mediate the
responses of societies to
environmental stress, and there are
also time-delays to societal
responses.

 More recent changes in the humanenvironment relationship, such as accelerated

globalization and global environmental
change, have deep roots in humanitys
relationship with nature over the past
millennium.
While we often associate the term global
change with the greenhouse gas warming
evident in the last decade, socio-ecological
changes at continental and global scales were
put in motion over at least the past 1000
years (e.g. many European landscapes looked
much like they do today far earlier than this).

 Important phenomena include a rise

in human population, the
strengthening of nation states, the
global transfer of inventions and
values, the beginning of
industrialization and the rise of
global communications, and
associated with these the dramatic
modifications of land use and
biodiversity, hydrological and energy

 Thus, the present nature and complexity

of socio-ecological systems are heavily
contingent on the past; we cannot fully
understand the present condition
without going back centuries or even
millennia into the past. An important
implication is that societal actions today
will reverberate for centuries into the
future in climatic and many other ways.

 Turning to the more recent past, the

20th century witnessed several sharp
changes in the evolution of socioecological systems, at both global
(two world wars and the Great
Depression) and regional (e.g. the
failure of Soviet farming, its reliance
on grain from the U.S., and
subsequent collapse as a polity)
discontinuities. Variations in the

 carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere occurred

in response to both climatic controls over landatmosphere-ocean fluxes (for example, CO2
increases more rapidly in El Nio years because of
climate effects on terrestrial ecosystems) and
political events (the growth rate slowed during the
1970s oil shock and after the breakup of the
Soviet Union because of changes in fossil fuel
use).
The 20th century also marks the first period for
which instrumental records of many environmental
parameters have become available and for which
detailed statistical records of many human
activities have also been collected.

 The most remarkable phenomenon on Earth in the 20th

century was the Great Acceleration, the sharp
increase in human population, economic activity,
resource use, transport, communication and
knowledgesciencetechnology that was triggered in
many parts of the world. The tension between the
modern nation-state and the emergence of
multinational corporations and international political
institutions is a strong feature of the changing humanenvironmental relationship. The engine of the Great
Acceleration is an interlinked system consisting of
population increase, rising consumption, abundant
cheap energy, and liberalizing political economies.

 Globalization, especially an exploding knowledge

base and rapidly expanding connectivity and
information flow, thus acts as a strong accelerator
of the system. The environmental effects of the
Great Acceleration are clearly visible at the global
scalechanging atmospheric chemistry and
climate, degradation of many ecosystem services
(e.g., provision of freshwater, biological diversity,
etc.), and homogenization of the biotic fabric of the
planet. The Great Acceleration is arguably the most
profound and rapid shift in the humanenvironment
relationship that the Earth has experienced.

 Towards the end of the 20th century,

there were signs that the Great
Acceleration could not continue in its
present form without increasing the
risk of crossing major thresholds and
triggering abrupt changes worldwide.
Transitions to new energy systems
will be required.

 There is a growing disparity between the

wealthy and the poor, and, through
modern communication, a growing
awareness by the poor of this gap,
leading to heightened material
aspirations globallya potentially
explosive situation.
Many of the ecosystem services upon
which human well-being depends are
depleted or degrading, with possible rapid
changes when thresholds are crossed.

 The climate may be more sensitive to

increases in carbon dioxide and may
have more inertia than earlier
thought, raising concerns of abrupt
and irreversible changes in the
planetary environment as a whole.

 From the past, we know there are

circumstances in which a society is resilient
to perturbations (e.g., climate change) and
there are circumstances in which a society is
so vulnerable to perturbations that it will be
unable to cope.
The evolutionary biologist and biogeographer
Jared Diamond identifies what he considered
to be the 12 most serious environmental
problems facing past and future societies
problems that often have led to the collapse
of historical societies:

Loss of habitat and ecosystem services;

Overfishing;
Loss of biodiversity;
Soil erosion and degradation;
Energy limits;
Freshwater limits;
Photosynthetic capacity limits;
Toxic chemicals;
Alien species introductions;
Climate change;
Population growth; and
Human consumption levels.

 More importantly, the interplay of

multiple factors is almost always more
critical than any single factor. Societies on
the edge become brittle and lose
resilience (including the ability to adapt
social values to new circumstances)
making them more susceptible to the
impacts of potential perturbations of
several kinds, including climate change,
political corruption, war, and terrorism.

 In addition, what happens to any

society is an emergent phenomenon,
the result of individual decisions and
conflicts in combination with
environmental factors. To make
further progress, we need to
construct a framework to help us
understand the full range of humanenvironment interactions and how
they affect societal development and

 We now have the capacity to develop this

framework in the form of more
comprehensive integrated models, combining
approaches from geophysical, systems
dynamics and agent-based models to
implement approaches including simulation
games and scenario analysis. Insights from
modeling and analysis of the rich array of
well-documented integrated historic events
can be used to structure, test and further
develop these models.

 The fundamental question we need to ask is:

how does the history of human-environment
systems generate useful insights about the
future? In trying to gain insights from the past,
tests of alternate models must play a central role.
While in the natural sciences, alternate models
can be tested against numerical data sets, in
testing models (conceptual and computational) of
the human-environment system, we need to use
the full range of data from numerical time series
to historical narratives

 We also need to develop new skills

and techniques for integrating these
disparate data sources of
fundamentally different characters.
The extent to which we can (or
cannot) reproduce historical behavior
in socio-ecological systems
determines the confidence we can
place in future projections

 One of the longest ongoing relationships

has been between people and their rivers
with consequences both positive and
negative
Rivers are one of the most important
physical components of a region. People
have used rivers for a multitude of
purposes, such as transportation,
recreation, and a source of food.

 It should come as no surprise that the history

of a region is often intimately linked with a
river nor that humans have long modified
rivers to improve upon the capabilities of
those vital resources. What many people do
not realize is that a river will adjust to those
changes, often with unexpected and
unpleasant consequences.
Rivers and streams provide a great deal for
people. Geographers and historians agree that
a country's or region's livelihood, prosperity,
and strength are directly related to their river
systems

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS TO LEARN ABOUT
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP DURING
DEVELOPMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
TO MEET THE BASIC NEEDS OF PEOPLE
TODAY WITHOUT RUINNING THE
CHANCES OF FUTURE GENERATIONS
TO DO THE SAME

PEOPLE,DEVELOPMENT AND THE

ENVIRONMENT
The world as an ecosystem
Natural resources
Development and its dependence on
natural resources
Sustainable use of natural resources
Population growth and natural
resources

The world as an ecosystem

When one aspect is affected the
whole system is affected
Renewable resources
Non-renewable resources
Water
Land

Development and its dependence on natural resources

No equal distribution of natural

resources around the earth
Land is sold to the highest bidder
The rich pollute more and contribute
more to land degradation.
Poor walk miles to fetch water which
is often polluted upstream by farmers
and industrialists who uses chemicals

 We are degrading our natural

resource every day
Coal causes thick smoke (townships)
Rural contribute to natural resource
degradation (denude forest, overcultivate, over-grazing and washing
in the streams
As we pollute our fresh water supply,
land and forest we need to find more
sources of this scares resource in our
country

 But there is more serious impact of all OUR

POLLUTION (noticed over the past twenty
years
That is GLOBAL WORMING climate change
It is a direct result of burning massive amount
of carbon products like coal and oil
This carbon escape into the atmosphere and is
causing the worlds climate to change.
It does this by forming a thick layer of gases,
which trap the heat of the earth inside its
atmosphere not allowing it to escape.
The results of this is so called geenhouse
effect that is the earth climate is changing

 The United Nation has take it on, as

one of its more serious issue.
The UN Framework Convention on
Climatic Change (UNFCC) was signed
in 1992 at the Earth Summit and the
Kyoto Protocol which provide for a
method for implementing some of
the ideas in the Convention

 Consensus/ general agreement

among the scientists is that our use
of fossil fuels is causing the global
climate to change and this will have
serious impacts on the ability of the
earth to sustain life as we know it
Impacts of climate vary from region
to region

 British Weather office has predicted

that 80 million people in Asia could
be flooded due to climate instability
since the prediction there have been
flood in Mozambique, Bangladesh
and Orissa.
Some small island state might
disappear due to polar ice cap
melting and the sea level rise

Predictions for SA are:

We will experience more droughts,
deserts will creep closer to the
settlements impacting especially on
the ability of the poor to survive
Urban area we will lose good arable
land and fresh water as water cycle
is interrupted

 Higher temperature might impact on

some diseases like malaria that
thrive in warmer climate
Lose some valuable biological
diversity that cannot survive and
adapt to warmer climate

Degrading the environment

Pollution
Climate change
Impact of climate change
More disasters floods, hurricanes
More droughts, bigger deserts
Less fresh water
Diseases like malaria will thrive
Some species will die out eg. Most fish
like cold sea water

Who uses the most

resources

Urban areas
Wealthier people
Industry
Farms
Cars

Use of resources
The US, Canada and Europe with 12% of
the people use 60% of the worlds
resources.
33% of the world population living in South
Asia and Africa use only 3%
About 7 billion people (7 000 million) in
the world
2.8 billion (40%)live on less than R12 per
day
As the population increases use of
resources increase even more

SA and resources
Even though we are not an over-consuming
nation we have shortages of water, fish
stocks, arable land and clean air. Our
energy sources rely on coal and dirty
methods. As non-renewable resources get
scarce globally, they will become very
expensive.
To make development here affordable and
sustainable we must still use our resources
carefully and not damage the environment
for future generations

SUSTAINABLE USE OF
RESOURCES
The way development takes place at the
moment is extremely wasteful of natural
resources
We use 10L of water to flush a toilet
We use coal to generate electricity and we
lose 30% of the energy generated to loses
that takes place every point of the
generation cycles, transmission, distibution
and end use
Gas is much better for cooking and yet we
promote the use of electricity for cooking

In rural areas
People are far less wasteful of natural
resources
They often do not have access to
type of services that you can get in
urban areas
Let us explore the most efficient
ways of providing access to fresh
water and hygienic sanitation system

 We can use rain water as valuable

and try to keep it in our land for as
long as possible by storing it in rain
water tanks.
Use this water for cleaning the floors,
water gardens and flushing toilets
Lot of people dont know how to save
resources

POPULATION GROWTH AND

NATURAL RESOURCES
The worlds population is growing
fast and the use of resources is
growing even faster at an
exponential rate

ITEM
world population
energy use is now
paper use
wood use
water use
fish catch up
disaster relief budgets

INCREASE
2 x more
4 x more
7 x more
3 x more
3 x more
5 x more
10 x more

Will the world run out of

resources?
What non-renewable resources do
you think the world will run out of in
the next century?
What renewable resources are
threatened by pollution and overconsumption?
What should we do to avoid running
out of the above resources?

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Build homes in such a way that they
are warm in winter and cool in
summer
Energy efficient devices
Use the right energy source for the
right activity
Composting toilets
Biogas digesters

Grey waste water system

Rain water harvesting
Landscaping
Waste recycling

Build homes in such a way that they

are warm in winter and cool in summer
Traditional homes made from mud
brick are much more thermally
efficient than cement brick homes.
We should encourage this type of
building in rural areas where cement
is not readily available and clay is
abundant.

Cont.
By installing a ceiling and putting
insulation in the roofs of houses ,
there can be savings made on
heating homes.
Build homes to face the sun
We can start off winters evening
with a warm home already.
Large windows on the north side
allow more sun in

Energy efficient devices

Energy efficient light bulbs last for up to
30% less electricity.
Old fridges use a lot of electricity.
As much as 50% of your energy bill is from
an electric geyser.
Put your heater upright
Buy geyser blanket to insulate the geyser
Remember to switch off all appliances
when not in use.

Use right energy source for the right

activity
Gas is better for space heating and
cooking than electricity.
It gives an immediate heat and you do not
lose money while heating appliances.
Wind energy is especially useful along
coastlines.
Solar energy is good in most of South
Africa, mostly in rural areas.
Biogas has great potential in South Africa ,
particularly in rural and farming areas.

Composting toilets
S.A is one of 25 countries in a water
crisis.
Waterborne sanitation is hugely
costly in terms of water use, money
and pollution
Flush toilets cost between R3500R5000 per household plus R100m
upwards for sewerage treatment
By contrast , composting toilets are a
dry , non-flush , zero discharge
system.

 Composting toilets are based on a simple

system: air is brought into the waste
chamber, preventing the smell bacteria
from growing.
It is the bacteria that cause the methane
smell of the commonly used pit latrines.
Compost toilets require little maintenance,
clean out compost every few years. The
system is good in rural areas where water
supply is limited

Biogas digester
Essentially a biogas digester is a septic
tank , a closed sanitation system existing
in a particular area and not linked to a
complicated sanitation system requiring
treatments works. 11 million biogas
digester in China
Sewage waste gets fed into the biogas
digester where it gets broken down and
enables methane gas to collect.
Methane gas is a very useful source of
energy for heating and cooking.

 There is no need to install bulk

infrastructure nor build wastewater
treatments plants.
An additional benefit of the biogas
digester is that the effluent water
can be used for irrigation .
Everybody wins and the water
resources are protected and
enhanced.

Grey waste water system

Grey waste water is the water that
comes from basins and baths as
opposed to black water , which
comes from toilets.
Grey water can be used again to
flush toilets , or it can be filtered to
irrigate gardens.

Rainwater harvesting
Allowing rainwater to soak into the soil is
very important to help replenish
groundwater levels.
Harvesting rainwater can be used for
-------- A good place to harvest water is the roof .
A local community can also manufacture
tin systems quite simply.
If tin is used however ,the water MUST
NOT be used for drinking.

SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS
Environmental determinism
Environmental possibilism
Environmental probabilism

Environmental determinism
Also known as climatic determinism or
geographical determinism, is the view that
the physical environment, rather than social
conditions, determines culture. Those who
believe this view say that humans are
strictly defined by stimulus-response (
environment-behavior) and cannot deviate.
Physical geography, particularly climate,
influenced the psychological mind-set of
individuals, which in turn defined the
behaviour and culture of the society that
those individuals formed.

Environmental possibilism

Possibilism emphasizes the range of

possible strategies of cultural adaptation
to given environmental conditions and
the resulting impossibility of speaking of
strict environmental determinism .
Societies, possibilists argue, do not
merely reflect their environmental ...
Possibilism in cultural geography is the
theory that the environment sets certain
constraints or limitations, but culture is
otherwise determined by man's actions.

Environmental probabilism

Environmental probabilism is a thought

that considers the probabilistic
relationship between physical
environments and behavior.
For example, an warm, and welcoming
entrance to a campus building will
increase the probability of it being
entered more so than if it is cold and
unwelcoming. The welcoming entrance
does not cause entry, but the
probability of entry can be increased
with proper design.

Population in Ecology

Main Idea

Key concepts include:

interactions within and among
populations including carrying
capacities, limiting factors, and
growth curves;

Population Dynamics

Population: all the individuals of a

species that live together in an area
Demography: the statistical study
of populations, make predictions
about how a population will change

Population Dynamics

Three Key Features of Populations

Size
Density
Dispersion
(clumped, even/uniform, random)

Three Key Features of Populations

Growth Rate: Birth Rate (natality) Death Rate (mortality)
How many individuals are born vs. how
many die

Three Key Features of Populations

2. Density: measurement of
population per unit area or unit
volume
Pop. Density = # of individuals unit of space

4 Factors that affect density

1. Immigration- movement of
individuals into a population
2. Emigration- movement of
individuals out of a population

4 Factors that affect density

3. Density-dependent factors- Biotic
factors in the environment that have an
increasing effect as population size
increases
Ex. disease
competition
parasites

4 Factors that affect density

4. Density-independent factorsAbiotic factors in the environment that
affect populations regardless of their
density
Ex. temperature
storms
habitat destruction
drought

Factors That Affect Future

Population Growth
Immigration

Natality

+
Population

Emigration

Mortality

Three Key Features of Populations

3. Dispersion:describes their spacing

relative to each other
clumped
even or uniform
random

clumped

even
(uniform)
random

Other factors that affect population growth

Carrying Capacity- the maximum

population size that can be supported
by the available resources
There can only be as many
organisms as the environmental
resources can support

Other factors that affect population growth

Limiting factor- any biotic or

abiotic factor that restricts the
existence of organisms in a
specific environment.
EX.- Amount of water
Amount of food
Temperature

What is Carrying Capacity of the

ecosystem?
Carrying capacity is the number of
individuals of a species that an
ecosystem can support.
The total number of individuals the
environment can support over an
indefinite period of time
Because of these limiting factors,
each ecosystem has a finite capacity
for growth connected to its carrying
capacity.

Carrying Capacity

N
u
m

J-shaped curve
(exponential growth)
Carrying Capacity (k)

S-shaped curve
(logistic growth)

e
r
Time

Populations within
Ecosystems
Populations (group of organisms of a
single species living in a given area)
within ecosystems grow, shrink, or
stay the same based on the how
many are born (birth rate), die (death
rate), join (immigration), and leave
(emmigration) over time.

Exponential Population
Growth
Exponential growth occurs when
resources are unlimited and
environmental conditions are ideal.
Birth Rate >>> Death Rate
J-shaped curve results when number
of organisms over time is graphed

However, in most ecosystems.

Resources are NOT unlimited.limiting
factors slow population growth by
increasing death rate and decreasing
birth rate.
Is demonstrated in the Logistic Model of
Population Growth which incorporated
limiting factors and recognizes a
carrying capacity in each ecosystem.
Results in an S-shaped curve (Sigmoid)
when number of individuals over time is
graphed.

What determines the carrying capacity?

Limiting factors control the growth of
populations.
Some limiting factors are densitydependent and others densityindependent.
Ecosystem composition of plants and
animals is determined by various
abiotic factors, as well as biotic factors
that act as limiting factors to growth.
Disruptions of any of these factors shift
the carrying capacity of ecosystems.

Limiting
Factors
Background Information

What is a Limiting Factor?

Limiting Factors
are
(two similar definitions)

conditions of the
environment that
limit the growth of
a species.
biotic and abiotic
factors that
prevent the

What is a Limiting Factor?

Populations would continue to
increase if they had all of the
resources they require in unlimited
amounts, but there are always
factors that limit their increase.
Limiting factors control
population growth.

Lets list some Limiting

Factors!

Limiting Factors
In nature, populations of organisms rarely
grow uncontrolled. Each ecosystem has a
carrying capacity (or number or organisms
it can sustain/support).
Remember, limiting factors are biotic and
abiotic factors that prevent the continuous
growth of a population.
Because of limiting factors, the number of
organisms in a population is often well
below carrying capacity.

How do limiting factors

work?
Population
Size
can be limited by
Natural
disaster
Competition

Unusual
weather
Predation
Parasitism
and disease

Abiotic Factors..
The physical components of an
ecosystem.
Any nonliving part of the
environment.
Example:
A bullfrog is affected by water
availability, temperature, and humidity.

Abiotic Factors that influence

carrying capacity

Temperature
Precipitation
Soil composition
pH
Humidity
Salinity
Amount of sunlight
Availability of nitrogen

The importance of each

factor varies from
environment to environment.
Abiotic factors vary from
region to region and over
time.
For example, temperature
varies from hour to hour, from
day to day, from season to
season, and from place to
place.
Subtle differences (i.e. from
shade to full sun) makes a
tremendous difference in
terms of plant composition.

Abiotic Factors as DensityIndependent Limiting Factors

Density-Independent limiting factors
limit population growth in similar
ways no matter how dense the
population is at the time.
Unusual weather (hurricanes,
drought, floods) and natural disasters
(wildfires) act in this way.
These factors often result in a
population crash.

Biotic factors..
The biological influences on
organisms.
Any living part of the environment
with which an organism may
interact.
Example:
Bullfrogs may be affected by the
algae it ate as a tadpole, insects it
eats as an adult, herons that eat
bullfrogs, and other species it
competes with for food and space.

Biotic Factors that influence

carrying capacity.
All biological aspects of an ecosystem fall
into this category.
Vegetation composition often determines
what species will be attracted to a given
area due to food availability.
Scientists note that competition,
predator-prey relations, mutualism, and
host-pathogen interactions are critical to
consider when accessing carrying
capacity.

Concept Check
You will have 2 minutes to discuss
the following question with the
person sitting next to you and
formulate a logical response.

Compare abiotic factors

with biotic factors and
give two examples of
each.

Form a hypothesis to the following.

What factors might cause the carrying
capacity of a population to change?

Biotic Factors in greater

detail..
Competition for resources
Symbiotic Relationships
Predator/Prey interactions

How does competition shape communities

and affect carrying capacity of ecosystems?

Competition for Resources

Interspecific Competition= an interaction
in which two or more species use the
same resource.
Examples: when lions and hyenas
compete for zebras,and when different
plants in a forest compete for soil and
sunlight.
Often competition results in the reduction
or complete elimination of one species
from the area due to competitive
exclusion.

 To illustrate the principle of

competitive exclusion.
When ---------- and -------grew in
separated they thrived.
However, when grown together
-------died because of inability to
survive

Competition as a DensityDependent Limiting Factor

As population increases, individuals
will compete for food, water, space,
sunlight, etc.
The more crowded an area is, the
sooner resources will be used up.
Those individuals who are better
competitors survive and reproduce,
those who arent, die out (survival of
the fittest).

Review what you have learned.

Take 2 minutes and discuss this
question with your neighbor and
formulate a response.
What is the relationship between
competition and population size?

How do species interactions shape communities

and how does that affect their carrying capacities?

Symbiotic Relationships
A symbiotic relationship exists when
there is a close, long-term
relationship between two organisms.
Parasitism, Mutualism, and
Commensalism are all examples.
Disruptions to these relationships can
alter the flora and fauna of an area,
thereby altering its carrying capacity.

a. Parasitism
A symbiotic relationship in which one
individual is harmed (the host) while
the other benefits (the parasite) (+/-).
Unlike predation, the host is not
immediately killed.
Parasites can be ectoparasites (outside
the body) or endoparasites (inside the
body).
The host and parasite species are in an
evolutionary battle to evolve better
ways to resist infection/infect more.

Parasitism as a Density-Dependent
Limiting Factor
The denser the host population, the more
rapidly parasites can spread from host to
host.
Example, pastures that are grazed upon
by too many cattle often result the cattle
becoming infested with worms passed
from one cow to another.
Example, the flu virus spreads rapidly
through schools because there are a large
number of students in one location.

Review what you have learned..

Take 2 minutes and respond in your
notes to the following question..
What is a limiting factor and how do
they affect the growth of populations
in a community?

b. Mutualism
A mutual relationship exists when
both individuals benefit (+/+).
Mutual relationships, such as
pollinators (ex. Bees) and flowering
plants (ex. Lilies), are vital to the
stability of some ecosystems.

c. Commensalism
A relationship in which one organism
benefits while the other is neither harmed
nor benefits (+/0).
For example, barnacles that are attached
to a whales skin perform no known
service to the whale; however, the
barnacle benefits from consuming the food
particles that are in the water that flows
over the whales body as it swims.

POPULATION AND
MIGRATION

This lecture will help you

understand:

Human population
growth
Demography
Affluence, technology,
the status of women, and
the environment
Population control
programs
Demographic transition
theory
Consumption and the
ecological footprint

Key Words
age pyramid
age structure
AIDS epidemic
demographic transition
demography
doubling time
ecological footprint
family planning
greater-than-exponential
growth rate
human
immunodeficiency
virus/acquired
immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS)
industrial stage
IPAT model
life expectancy

population density
population distribution
population size
post-industrial stage
pre-industrial stage
replacement fertility
sex ratio
total fertility rate (TFR)
transitional stage

Central Case: Chinas One-Child

Policy
Unfettered population growth posed
challenges for Chinas environment,
economy, and political stability.
China tried to control its growth with a
system of rewards and punishments to
encourage one-child families.
The program decreased population
growth, but meant government intrusion
in private reproductive choices.

Baby
Six
Billion
The worlds population now exceeds 6 billion people.
The UN marked this symbolically by declaring a child
born in 1999 in war-torn Sarajevo as the six-billionth
baby.

Figure 7.1

World population has risen

sharply

Global human population was <1 billion in 1800.

Population has doubled just since 1963.
We add 2.5 people every second (79 million/year).
Figure 7.2

Population growth rates, 1990-1995

Growth rates vary from place to place.

Growth peaked at 2.1% in the 1960s; it has
now declined to 1.3%.
Figure 7.3

Is population growth really a

problem?
Some say NO:
People can find or
manufacture
additional resources
to keep pace with
population growth.
Nations become
stronger as their
populations grow.

Some say YES:

Not all resources
can be replaced.
Even if they could,
quality of life
suffers.
Nations do not
become stronger as
their populations
grow.

Modeling population and its

consequences

Some models show population growth leading to

resource depletion, which can result in declining
food production, industrial output, and population.
Figure 7.4

Increasing our carrying

capacity

Technology has allowed us to raise Earths carrying

capacity for our species time and again.
Tool-making, agriculture, and industrialization each
enabled humans to sustain greater populations.
Figure 7.5

Demography
Demography is the study of human
populations.
Human populations exhibit the same
fundamental characteristics as do populations
of all other organisms.

Population size: National

populations

Nations vary from Chinas 1.3 billion down to

Pacific island nations of 100,000.
Shown are the 15 most populous countries, and selected others; 2002 data.
Figure 7.6

Population size: Future projections

Demographers project population growth
trends to estimate future population sizes.
Different fertility rate scenarios predict global
population sizes in 2050 of 7.4 billion, 8.9
billion, or 10.6 billion.
All these projections assume fertility rates below todays; at todays rate,
the population would reach 12.8 billion.

Figure 7.7

Population density and distribution

Humans are unevenly distributed, living at

different densities from region to region.
Figure 7.8

Age structure

Age structure
can influence
population
growth rates.

Figure 7.9

Age structure: Age pyramids

Canada (left) has a much slower growing

population than does Madagascar (right).
Figure 7.10

Age structure: Graying

populations

Demographers project that Chinas population

will become older over the next two decades.
Figure 7.11a,b

Age structure: Graying populations

Chinas aging population will mean fewer workingage citizens to finance social services for retirees.
Figure 7.11c

Age structure: Baby booms

The United States baby boom is evident in

age bracket 4050. U.S. age structure will
change as baby boomers grow older.

Sex ratios
A populations
sex ratio can
affect its
growth rate.

Figure 7.13

Factors affecting population growth

rates
Population growth depends on rates of birth,
death, immigration, and emigration.
(birth rate + immigration rate)
(death rate + emigration rate)
= population growth rate

Migration can have environmental effects

Immigration and emigration play large roles today.
Refugees from the 1994 Rwandan genocide endured great
hardship, and deforested large areas near refugee camps.

Figure 7.14

Natural rate of population

change
Change due to birth and death rates
alone, excluding migration
Is often expressed in % per year

Chinas natural rate of change has

fallen

Chinas rate has fallen with fertility rates. It now takes the
population 4 times as long to double as it did 25 years ago.

Global growth rates have

fallen
The annual
growth rate of the
world population
has declined
since the 1960s.
(But the
population size is
still rising!)

Figure 7.15

Fertility rates affect population

growth rates
Total fertility rate (TFR) = average number
of children born per woman during her
lifetime
Replacement fertility = the TFR that keeps
population size stable
For humans, replacement fertility is about 2.1.

Total fertility rates by region

African nations have the highest TFRs.

European nations have the lowest TFRs.

Demographic transition
theory
Demographic transition = model of
economic and cultural change to explain
declining death rates, declining birth rates,
and rising life expectancies in Western
nations as they became industrialized
Proposed by F. Notestein in the 1940s1950s

Demographic transition:
Stages

Figure 7.18

Demographic transition: Stages

The demographic transition consists of several stages:
Pre-industrial stage: high death rates and high birth
rates
Transitional stage: death rates fall due to rising food
production and better medical care. Birth rates remain
high, so population surges.
Industrial stage: birth rates fall, as women are
employed and as children become less economically
useful in an urban setting. Population growth rate
declines.
Post-industrial stage: birth and death rates remain
low and stable; society enjoys fruits of industrialization
without threat of runaway population growth.

Female education and TFR

Female literacy and
school enrollment
are correlated with
total fertility rate:
More-educated
women have fewer
children.

Figure 7.16

Family planning and TFR

Family planning, health care, and reproductive
education can lower TFRs.
A counselor advises African women on health
care and reproductive rights.

Figure 7.17b

Family planning and TFR

Nations
that
invested in
family
planning
(green)
reduced
TFRs more
than similar
nations
that did not
(red).

Figure 7.17a

TFR decline in Bangladesh

Bangladesh
reduced TFR
from 7.1 to
4.6 in 25 yr,
and is at 3.3
today.
Family
planning,
education,
and outreach
were
responsible.
From The Science behind the Stories

HIV/AIDS and human population

AIDS cases are increasing rapidly worldwide.

Figure 7.26

HIV/AIDS and human population

Infects 1 in 5 people in southern African nations
Infects 5 million new people each year
Kills babies born to
infected mothers
Has orphaned
14 million children
Has cut 15 years off
life expectancies in
parts of
southern Africa
Figure 7.27

Poorer countries will experience most

future population growth

98% of the
next billion
people born
will live in
developing
nations.

Figure 7.20

Population and the environment

Population growth can lead to environmental
degradation.
Overpopulation in Africas Sahel region has led to
overgrazing of semi-arid lands.

Figure 7.21

Affluence/material confort and the

environment
Poverty can lead to environmental degradation
BUT
wealth and resource consumption can produce
even more severe and far-reaching environmental
impacts.

The ecological footprint

The cumulative amount of Earths surface area

required to provide the raw materials a person
or a population consumes and to dispose of or
recycle the waste that is produced

Ecological footprints
Residents of some
countries consume
more resources
and thus use more
landthan residents
of others.
Shown are
ecological
footprints of an
average citizen from
various nations.
Figure 7.23

The wealth gap

Residents of developed
nations have larger
houses, more possessions,
and more money than
residents of developing
nations.
The richest 20% of the
worlds people consumes
86% of its resources, and
has >80 times the income
of the poorest 20%.
Figure 7.25

Demographic fatigue and demographic

transition
Many governments of developing countries are
experiencing demographic fatigue, unable to
meet the social, economic, and environmental
challenges imposed by rapid population growth.
This raises the question:
Will todays developing countries successfully
pass through the demographic transition?

The IPAT model

Shows how Population, Affluence, and
Technology interact to create Impact on our
environment.

I = P A T
Further factors can be added to the original equation of Holdren
and Ehrlich to make it more comprehensive.

Conclusions: Challenges
Human population is rising by 79 million people
annually.
Many more people are born into poverty than into
wealth.
Rich and poor nations are divided by a wealth gap.
HIV/AIDS is taking a heavy toll.
Population growth has severe environmental effects.

Conclusions: Solutions
Expanding womens rights is crucial to
encourage the demographic transition.
Health and reproductive education and
counseling can reduce fertility rates.
Education, medicine, and policies can lessen
the toll of HIV/AIDS.
New green technologies can help reduce
population growths environmental impacts.

Viewpoints: Population control?

Timothy
Cline
Access to
reproductive health
care, including family
planning, is a basic
human right.

Douglas
Sylva
Governments do not
have an interest in
further reducing
fertility. Nor should
they have the authority
to do so.
From Viewpoints

QUESTION: Review
Using the I = P A T equation, what
would happen if the population doubled?
a. Affluence and technology would decline.
b. The environment would become more
sensitive.
c. The environmental impact would double.
d. Nothing, because Earth can compensate.

QUESTION: Review
What has allowed us to increase Earths
carrying capacity for our species?
a. Agriculture
b. Industrialization
c. Tool-making
d. All of the above

QUESTION: Review
Which statement is FALSE?
a. The global population growth rate is
decreasing.
b. The global population is increasing.
c. At a TFR of 2.4, a human population grows.
d. Populations with age distributions skewed
toward young people grow more slowly.

QUESTION: Review
Women who are more educated tend to ?
a. Have higher TFRs.
b. Live in developing nations.
c. Have fewer children.
d. Contract HIV/AIDS.

QUESTION: Weighing the

Issues
Should the United States fund family planning
efforts in other nations?
a. Yes, without reservation
b. Yes, in nations whose programs it approves
c. Only if it can influence the nations policies
d. Never under any circumstances

QUESTION:
Interpreting
Graphs
and
What happens
Datathe
during
transitional
stage of the
demographic
transition?
a. Birth rates rise; death rates drop; population
increases
b. Birth rates drop; death rates drop; population
decreases
c. Death rates drop; birth rates are stable;
population
increases

Figure 7.18

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Do you believe that national governments
should implement policies, subsidies, or other
programs to reduce birth rates?
a. No, not at all
b. Yes, but only positive incentives for fewer
children
c. Yespenalties for too many children
d. Yes, both incentives and penalties

Migration

Push factors

Pull factors

Migration, refugee/forced migration

People leave their home areas as a

result of unfavourable events.
Unfavourable conditions may be due
to natural causes such as floods,
drought
A refugee is someone who is forced
to flee into a new area as a result of
war or unfavourable natural
conditions

Causes are

wars
politics
Environmental disaster
Religion

The movement of people is seen as having

environmental consequences in the host countries.

Threatens biodiversity, valuable

ecosystem and carrying capacity of the
particular region
Environmental consequences
Stripped off vegetation cover
Loss of biodiversity
Soil erosion
Destruction of animal life and grassland
Land degradation
Soil degradation

Pressure on water resources

Changes in flora and fauna
Refugees are environmental degraders
Lack long term commitment
Lack of ownership of land
Breakdown of social authority
Ignore sound management of the
environment
Possible solution to refugee migration

Development

Difference between
developed and developing
country
Mention the differences
between developed and
developing countries

Birth Rates

Developing countries have high birth rates

because
Many parents will have a lot of children in
the expectation that some will die because
of the high infant mortality rate
Large families can help in looking after the
farm
The children will be able to look after their
parents if they become old or sick; there
may not be a old age pension scheme
There may be a shortage of family planning
facilities and advice

 Developed countries have low birth rates

because
It is expensive to look after large families
More women prefer to concentrate on their
careers
Increasing sexual equality has meant
women have more control over their own
fertility
There is a ready availability of contraception
and family planning advice

Death Rates

Developing countries have high death

rates because, in many cases, there
are
Dirty, unreliable water supplies
Poor housing conditions
Poor access to medical sevices
Endemic disease in some countries
Diets that are short in calories and/or
protein

 Developed countries have low death rates

because, in many cases, there are
Good housing conditions
Safe water supplies
More than enough food to eat
Advanced medical services which are easy to
access
Some developed countries have a high death
rate as they have an ageing population with
many older people

 A developing country normally has

comparatively low level of unemployment
rate. In developing countries, there is low
per capita income, poverty, less education
level and low capital formation. Such
countries are fighting to get these things,
but might not have reached them. These
countries are usually suffered from war,
disease, poverty, natural disasters, etc.

 The developed/advanced countries have developed

economies. They have technological improvements,
excellent roads, a steady government etc. This level
of economic development usually translates into a
High GDP per capita (average income), Good
education, Good health-care, and Death & birth rate
are almost the same. Developed countries are those
countries with well developed industries, high
proportion oftheirpopulations living in
urban areas and agriculture which is likely to be
highly mechanised and with little or no subsistence.

 Under developingfocus on the

developing techniques to improve
living standard ,huge employment
rate. And development is common
problem of developing countries.
While, in case of developed countries
growth is problem of developed
country and focus on growth very
much.

 Developing countries are those that have not

attain the maturity stagein terms of high
education, high capital formation, high pa-ca
pita income, and the poverty levels
developed countries are countries that have
fully attain the maturity stage in terms of
technology level, income levels, education
levels, and production levels are all high. The
poorer countries in which many economic
developements continue to take place and
which are likely to be in debt to the world
bankand foreign countries for the loans
necessary for these developments

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT

BETWEEN THE DCS AND LDCS.

Uneven development between the DCs and LDCs

are reflected by the three sets of indicators:
Economic
DCs will have higher GNP per capita (more than
US$10 726) because the DCs usually have a
higher proportion of secondary and tertiary
industries that bring in a higher amount of
income compared to LDCs that have
predominantly large primary sectors with primary
goods e.g. timber, iron ore and rice generating
less profit compared to manufactured goods and
services.

 Hence, the employment structure in the DCs

shows a higher proportion of the population in the
secondary and tertiary industries instead of the
primary industries e.g. Japan, a DC 70 per cent
of the population are working in the tertiary
industries, 25 per cent in the secondary industries
and only 5 per cent are employed in the primary
industries compared to an LDC such as Nigeria
where 70 per cent of the population are engaged
in primary industries, and 10 per cent and 20 per
cent in the secondary and tertiary industries
respectively.

Demographic indicators

A DC has a relatively older population

compared to a LDC e.g. almost 20 per cent of
the population in Japan are above 65 years
compared to 4 per cent in India; 14 per cent of
the population in Japan are below 15 years
compared with 36 per cent of population in
India.
Life expectancy people in the DCs generally
live much longer than those in the LDCs due to
better healthcare and medical facilities e.g. the
average Japanese can expect to live to about
82 years compared to the Ethiopians (48 yrs)
and the Cambodians (56 yrs).

 Infant mortality rate good

sanitation facilities, comprehensive
healthcare systems and easy
accessibility to hospitals and doctors
have all contributed to lower infant
mortality rates in the DCs e.g. two
per 1000 live births in Singapore
compared to 100 per 1000 live births
in Ethiopia.

 Size of urban population usually higher in the

DCs than in LDCs, with the exception of an
emerging trend in some of the DCs where people
who used to live in the cities are relocating to the
suburbs due to an increase in private car ownership
or increasing congestion and levels of pollution in
cities; in the LDCs, expectations of better
employment opportunities and higher standards of
living have also contributed to rapid growth in
urban populations, giving rise to slums and
squatter settlements. These settlements are often
sited next to open sewers and piles of garbage.

Social indicators
Lack of safe drinking water and poor
sanitation (including garbage and
wastewater disposal) are leading causes
of deaths in LDCs. DCs like USA and
Japan have 100 per cent access to safe
drinking water and good sanitation,
unlike Nigeria where only 39 per cent of
the population has access to safe
drinking water and 36 per cent with
access to proper sanitation.

 Adult literacy rate refers to the

percentage of population aged 15
and above who are able to read, write
and understand simple statements. A
high literacy rate means people are
more likely to be employed in the
secondary and tertiary industries,
which translates into higher GNP per
capita. The DCs usually have higher
literacy rate compared to the LDCs

Spatial economic
interaction

 Complementarity
Transferability
Intervening opportunity

COMPLEMENTARITY
Complementary relationship between two areas
There is a supply (surplus) of a product (including economic
goods or factors of production) in one area AND a demand
for (deficit in) that product the other area
Mere existence of a surplus is not sufficient to ensure that
trade will happen
There has to be a surplus and deficiency in the production
before a trade transaction can take place
The nature and quality of the product in the Surplus area
must have the potential of satisfying the need of in the deficit
area
Trade takes place if consumers can aquire the required
product at a price they regard as reasonable and if suppliers
receives a sum which satisfies them
Exceptional cases is to give a deficit areas food donations, in
such areas the spatial interaction does not consist trade.

TRANSFERABILITY
Refers to the ease with which a
product (or idea) can be transferred
between two spaces and the degree
to which the effort of transporting
the product is justified

FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT TRANSFERABILITY

POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY

Distance, the time and cost entailed

in moving the product
Quality of transportation systems
(infrastructure) and information
systems (info structure)
Level of technological development
Historical and cultural bonds
Cost of labour and capital
Political obstacles

DISTANCE DECAY
When distance between surplus and
deficit areas can mean that transport
costs increase the price so much that it
become uneconomical for a deficit area to
buy goods from a distant surplus area
The quality of the transport channels and
info structure and the level of
technological development are important
factors affecting the relative distance and
transferability between areas.

Time-space convergence

Technological development reduces the

travelling time, and the relative distance
between two points,
Innovations in the fields of transport and
communications play a major role in
increasing transferability.
Faster, cheaper and more flexible modes of
transport can convey more perishable goods
and handle bigger loads.
Large aircraft can transport perishable goods
and large or heavy objects more efficiently.
Technological development is accompanied
by new products, markets and possibilities.

INTERVENING OPPORTUNITY
It can reduce or halt interaction
between the original points.
The figure below shows effect of an
intervening opportunity on spatial
interaction
Distance is not always the deciding
factor in choosing what opportunities
to exploit.
International trade organisations often
determine which intervening
opportunities are used

Transportation and
Economic Development

DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF

TRANSPORT ON
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The Economic Importance of

Transportation
Like many economic activities that are intensive in
infrastructures, the transport sector is an
important component of the economy impacting
on development and the welfare of populations.
When transport systems are efficient, they provide
economic and social opportunities and benefits
that result in positive multipliers effects such as
better accessibility to markets, employment and
additional investments. When transport systems
are deficient in terms of capacity or reliability, they
can have an economic cost such as reduced or
missed opportunities.

 Efficient transportation reduces

costs, while inefficient transportation
increases costs. The impacts of
transportation are not always
intended, and can have unforeseen
or unintended consequences such as
congestion. Transport also carries an
important social and environmental
load, which cannot be neglected. my.

 The added value and employment

effects of transport services usually
extend beyond employment and
added value generated by that
activity; indirect effects are salient.
For instance, transportation
companies purchase a part of their
inputs from local suppliers. The
production of these inputs generates
additional value-added and

 The suppliers in turn purchase goods and

services from other local firms. There are
further rounds of local re-spending which
generate additional value-added and
employment. Similarly, households that
receive income from employment in
transport activities spend some of their
income on local goods and services.
These purchases result in additional local
jobs and added value.

 Some of the household income from these

additional jobs is in turn spent on local goods and
services, thereby creating further jobs and income
for local households. As a result of these
successive rounds of re-spending in the
framework of local purchases, the overall impact
on the economy exceeds the initial round of
output, income and employment generated by
passenger and freight transport activities. Thus,
from a general standpoint the economic impacts
of transportation can be direct, indirect and
related:

 Direct impacts (also known as

induced) the outcome of accessibility
changes where transport enables
employment, added value, larger
markets and enables to save time
and costs.

 Indirect impacts the outcome of the economic

multiplier effects where the price of commodities,
goods or services drop and/or their variety increases.
Indirect value-added and jobs are the result of local
purchases by companies directly dependent upon
transport activity. Transport activities are responsible
for a wide range of indirect value-added and
employment effects, through the linkages of transport
with other economic sectors (e.g. office supply firms,
equipment and parts suppliers, maintenance and
repair services, insurance companies, consulting and
other business services).

 Related impacts the outcome of economic

activities and firms partly relying on efficient
transport services for both passengers and
freight. For instance, the steel industry
requires cost efficient import of iron ore and
coal for the blast furnaces and export
activities for finished products such as steel
booms and coils. Manufacturers and retail
outlets and distribution centers handling
imported containerized cargo rely on efficient
transport and seaport operations.

 Mobility is one of the most fundamental and

important characteristics of economic activity as it
satisfies the basic need of going from one location to
the other, a need shared by passengers, freight and
information. All economies and regions do not share
the same level of mobility as most are in a different
stage in their mobility transition. Economies that
possess greater mobility are often those with better
opportunities to develop than those suffering from
scarce mobility. Reduced mobility impedes
development while greater mobility is a catalyst for
development. Mobility is thus a reliable indicator of
development.

 The economic importance of the transportation

industry can thus be assessed from a
macroeconomic and microeconomic
perspective:
At the macroeconomic level (the importance
of transportation for a whole economy),
transportation and the mobility it confers are
linked to a level of output, employment and
income within a national economy. In many
developed countries, transportation accounts
between 6% and 12% of the GDP.

 At the microeconomic level (the importance of

transportation for specific parts of the economy)
transportation is linked to producer, consumer
and production costs. The importance of specific
transport activities and infrastructure can thus
be assessed for each sector of the economy.
Transportation accounts on average between
10% and 15% of household expenditures while it
accounts around 4% of the costs of each unit of
output in manufacturing, but this figure varies
greatly according to sub sectors.

 Transportation links together the factors of production

in a complex web of relationships between producers
and consumers. The outcome is commonly a more
efficient division of production by an exploitation of
geographical comparative advantages, as well as the
means to develop economies of scale and scope. The
productivity of space, capital and labor is thus
enhanced with the efficiency of distribution and
personal mobility. It is acknowledged that economic
growth is increasingly linked with transport
developments, namely infrastructures but also
managerial expertise is crucial for logistics. The
following impacts can be assessed:

 Networks. Setting of routes enabling new or existing

interactions between economic entities.
Performance. Improvements in cost and time attributes
for existing passenger and freight movements.
Reliability. Improvement in the time performance, notably
in terms of punctuality, as well as reduced loss or damage.
Market size. Access to a wider market base where
economies of scale in production, distribution and
consumption can be improved.
Productivity. Increases in productivity from the access to
a larger and more diverse base of inputs (raw materials,
parts, energy or labor) and broader markets for diverse
outputs (intermediate and finished goods).

 Types of Transport Impacts The relationship

between transportation and economic
development is difficult to formally establish and
has been debated for many years. There are
several layers of activity that transportation can
valorize, from a suitable location that
experiences the development of its accessibility
through infrastructure investment to a better
usage of existing transport assets through
management. This is further nuanced by the
nature, scale and scope of possible impacts:

 Timing of the development varies as

the impacts of transportation can either
precede, occur during or take place after
economic development. The lag,
concomitant and lead impacts make it
difficult to separate the specific
contributions of transport to development.
Each case study appears to be specific to
a set of timing circumstances that are
difficult to replicate elsewhere.

 Types of impacts vary considerably.

The spectrum of impacts range from
the positive through the permissive
to the negative. In some cases
transportation impacts can promote,
in others they may hinder economic
development in a region. In many
cases, few, if any, direct linkages
could be clearly established.

In general, transport technology can be linked to

five major waves of economic development where a specific mode or system emerged:

Seaports. Linked with the early stages of

European expansion from the 16th to the 18th
centuries. They supported the development of
international trade through colonial empires, but
were constrained by limited inland access.
Rivers and canals. The first stage of the industrial
revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries
was linked to the development of canal systems in
Western Europe and North America, mainly to
transport heavy goods. This permitted the
development of rudimentary and constrained
inland distribution systems.

 Railways. The second stage of industrial revolution in the 19th

century was intimately linked to the development and implementation
of rail systems, some transcontinental, enabling a more flexible inland
transportation system.
Roads. The 20th century saw the development of road transportation
systems and automobile manufacturing. Individual transportation
became a commodity available to the masses, especially after the
Second World War. This process was reinforced by the development of
national highway systems.
Airways and information. The later part of the 20th century saw the
development of global air and telecommunication networks in
conjunction with the globalization of economic activities. New
organization, control and maintenance capacities were made possible.
Electronic communications have become consistent with transport
functions, especially in the rapidly developing realm of logistics and
supply chain management.

The major impacts of transport on economic processes can be

categorized as follows:

Geographic specialization. Improvements in transportation

and communication favor a process of geographical
specialization that increases productivity and spatial
interactions. An economic entity tends to produce goods
and services with the most appropriate combination of
capital, labor, and raw materials. A given area will thus
tend to specialize in the production of goods and services
for which it has the greatest advantages (or the least
disadvantages) compared to other areas as long as
appropriate transport is available for trade. Through
geographic specialization supported by efficient
transportation, economic productivity is promoted. This
process is known in economic theory as comparative
advantages.

 Large scale production. An efficient transport

system offering cost, time and reliability advantages
permits goods to be transported over longer
distances. This facilitates mass production through
economies of scale because larger markets can be
accessed. The concept of just-in-time has further
expanded the productivity of production and
distribution with benefits such as lower inventory
levels and better responses to shifting market
conditions. Thus, the more efficient transportation
becomes, the larger the markets that can be
serviced and the larger the scale of production.

 Increased competition. When transport is efficient, the

potential market for a given product (or service) increases,
and so does competition. A wider array of goods and services
becomes available to consumers through competition which
tends to reduce costs and promote quality and innovation.
Globalization has clearly been associated with a competitive
environment that spans the world.
Increased land value. Land which is adjacent or serviced
by good transport services generally has greater value due
to the utility it confers to many activities. In some cases, the
opposite can be true if related to residential activities. Land
located near airports and highways, near noise and pollution
sources, will thus suffer from corresponding diminishing land
value.

environmental
consequences
Air quality. Atmospheric emissions from pollutants produced
transportation, especially by the internal combustion engine, are
associated with air pollution and, arguably, global climate change. Some
pollutants (NOx, CO, O3, VOC, etc.) can produce respiratory troubles and
aggravate cardiovascular illnesses. In urban regions, about 50% of all air
pollution emanates from automobile traffic.
Noise. A major irritant, noise can impact on human health and most
often human welfare. Noise can be manifested in three levels depending
on emissions intensity; psychological disturbances (perturbations,
displeasure), functional disturbances (sleep disorders, loss of work
productivity, speech interference) or physiological disturbances (health
issues such as fatigue, and hearing damage). Noise and vibration
associated with trains, trucks, and planes in the vicinity of airports are
major irritants.
Water quality. Accidental and nominal runoff of pollutants from
transport such as oil spills, are sources of contamination for both surface
water and groundwater.

An Introduction to
Urbanization

Key Topic: A Brief History

of Cities
Key Question:
What is the definition of a city?

When did people start living in

cities?
What was the first city like?
How have cities evolved over
time?

The Demographic Definition of a City

This definition was first codified by sociologist Louis Wirth in his
influential 1938 paper, Urbanism as a way of life (Wirth
1938). Cities, according to Wirth, are defined by four
characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Permanence
Large population size
High population density
Social heterogeneity

This sounds pretty good to most modern ears. It certainly fits

contemporary cities, although there is always room for
quibbling with quantitative definitions (How many people? How
much heterogeneity?). To use the demographic definition, one
looks at a settlement, makes some measurements, and decides
whether or not it is a city.
Source: http://wideurbanworld.blogspot.com/2011/02/what-is-

The Functional Definition of Urban or City

Although there may be precursors, most modern functional definitions
of cities derive from mid-20th century economic geography, where
central place theory focused on the regional distribution of retail
market centers. Market centers provisioned a hinterland, and the
larger the hinterland (and the more goods and services provided), the
more important the center. In these models retail marketing is an
urban functionan activity or institution located within a settlement
that affects people and places beyond the settlement. Later
developments in anthropology and geography expanded the notion of
urban function beyond economics to include politics and religion
(Fox 1977). From this perspective, the Classic Maya jungle cities can be
considered urban because their kings ruled city-states larger than the
individual settlement, and their temples were the focus of worship for
peasants as well as urban dwellers. From the demographic
perspective, on the other hand, the Maya centers were not big enough
to be called cities. To use the functional definition, one cannot simply
look at a settlement and decide whether it is urban; one has to look at
the entire regional context, including the hinterland and other nearby
settlements. If the settlement in question was the setting for people
and institutions that impacted a larger realm, it can be considered an
urban settlement.

Where was the worlds

first city?
It was originally believed, the first cities were built in
Mesopotamia, modern day Iraq, at around 5000 BC.
Cities such as Babylon were among the largest
permanent settlements in the ancient world.
However, discoveries in 2010, suggest that the first
cities may have been in Syria, and were built around
6000BC. Even if this cannot be verified.
The city of Damascus, has survived to become the
longest-inhabited city in the world and the
capitol of Syria.
Older groups of buildings have been found in
Europe, Egypt and Japan, but they are not large as
those in the Middle East.

THE KEY CHALLENGES FACING

CITIES
What are the top 10 challenges
facing Cities?
This powerpoint has provided 4, to
get you started.
Working in pairs, suggest 6 other
urban challenges.
Describe each challenge.

Key Challenges For Cities:

(1) Improving Public Transport
Traffic congestion and associated air pollution is a
major problem in many cities.
However, some cities have implemented world
class public transport solutions, that have eased
congestion and reduced environment degradation.
Key Question(s)
(1a) What cities have world class & high quality
public transportation?
(1b) How can other cities followed this model?
(2) What are the economic benefits for a cities that
reduce congestion?

Key Challenges For Cities:

(2) Improving Policing & Reducing Crime
Living in a city should provide additional security
and safety to it residents, but often this is not the
case.
However, some large cities in the world have
significantly reduced crime and are experiencing a
range of benefits as a result.
Key Questions
(1)What are the most cost-effective ways to reduce
crime, and what cities have been most successful?
(2)What are the economic benefits of low crime in an
urban area?

Key Challenges for Cities

(3) Affordable & Adequate Housing
Barrios or Shanty Towns in developing countries are
the most obvious example of urban decay.
However, even in developed countries, housing can
be too expensive, and as a result people live in
cramped conditions or alternatively they are forced
to live on the outskirts of a city, very far from the
CBD.
Key Questions
(1)How can cities in developing countries provide
better housing for their poorer residents?
(2)How can governments make housing more
affordable, without excessive government spending?

Key Challenges for Cities

(4) Urban Open Space & Recreational Areas

The concrete jungle has become an expression

used to describe many large cities around the
world.
A lack of open space, parks and recreational
opportunities can impact on our quality of life.
Key Challenges
(1) How much green area do urban planners need
to set aside to improve livability?
(2) What cities around the world are noted for their
outstanding parks, open areas and recreational
opportunities? Are these man made or natural?

Urban Challenges for Cities

5
6
7
8
9
10

Source: http://switchwatersummit.wordpress.com/2009/10/08/is-there-such-a-thing-as-sustainableurbanisation/

Cultural Evolution vs. Cultural Diffusion

Behavioral Geography
Culture Realms
Global Diffusion of Western Culture

Cultural Geography

What Is Culture? (in

sociology)

Knowledge
Language
Values
Customs
Material objects

*Also called Cultural

Traits or Elements

Notes on Cultural
Learned. The process of
learning ones culture is
called enculturation.
Culture is not merely
passively absorbed, but
rather taught and learned
by agentive individuals with
differing levels of power.
Shared. Members of a
particular society have their
culture in common.
Patterned. People in a
given society live and think
in distinctive and
describable ways.

Mutually constructed. By
means of constant and ongoing
social interaction, individuals
create, recreate, and change the
nature of a particular culture.
Symbolic. Those within a
particular culture possess a
shared understanding of
meaning.
Arbitrary. Culture is not based
on natural laws but rather is
created by human beings.
Internalized. Culture is
habitual, taken for granted, and
perceived as natural.

Keep It Going
Each is passed
person to person
in the society
Also from one
generation to the
next

Creating cultural
landscapes

The earths surface as modified by human

action

Cultures change in two

ways:
Evolutionism

Cultures change
internally
Technology plays an
important role

Diffusionism
Cultures change
externally by borrowing
of cultural elements
from one society by
members of another
Cultural diffusion
process of spreading
Acculturation process
of adopting

THEORIES OF
CULTURAL
EVOLUTION
How might cultures change through internal
measures?

Varros Theory of Human

Stages
Stages of Development
Stage 1 Hunters & Gatherers
Stage 2 Pastoral Nomadism (domestication)
Stage 3 Settled agriculture (Subsistence
agriculture)
Stage 4 Commercial Agriculture
Stage 5 Urbanization & Industry

Challenges
Not every culture passes through the same stages
Not true of all societies
Some ahead and some behind
Used to dominate other cultures

Marxs Historical
Materialism
Looks for the causes of
developments and changes in
human societies
Technology is the key to change!
Technology determines economic
systems which determines
politics and society
Cornucopian
Goods would be distributed
based on need since* Malthusians
technology
believe that there is no
would help produce guarantee
surplus.
that technology will

continue to provide rising standards of

living as population increases.

Environmental Determinism
View that the physical environment, rather
than social conditions, determines culture.
Societies adapt to natural landscape
Climate (major control)
Challenge-Response Theory
People need the challenge of a difficult environment
Weather of the middle latitudes led to more
determined and driven work ethics

Possibilism
Theory that the environment sets certain
constraints or limitations, but culture is otherwise
determined by man's actions

Environmental
Determinism
Debate

CULTURAL
DIFFUSION
How might cultures change through external measures?

Cultural Diffusion
Overwhelms Cultural Evolution
Does not explain all distribution
Diffusion is affected by a number of important
variables:
duration and intensity of contact
degree of cultural integration
similarities between the donor and recipient cultures
built in cultural resistance

Cultural Hearth place of origin of culture

elements
Problem: Same phenomenon occurs
spontaneously at two or more places

Acculturation
Exchange of cultural
features that results when
groups come into
continuous firsthand contact
Immigrants adapt to cultural
change resulting from
contact with the dominant
group by using one of four
strategies:
Assimilation (adopting)
Integration (multicultural)
Separation (separate)
Marginalization (alienation)

Folk Culture
Made up of people who maintain the
traditional
Describes people who live in an oldfashioned way-simpler life-style
Rural, cohesive, conservative, largely
self-sufficient group, homogeneous in
custom
Strong family or clan structure and
highly developed rituals
Tradition is paramount change comes
infrequently and slowly

Folk Culture
Amish

Appalachia

Popular Culture
Consists of large masses of people who conform
to and prescribe to ever-changing norms
Large heterogeneous groups
Often highly individualistic and groups are
constantly changing
Pronounced division of labor leading to
establishment of specialized professions
Police and army take the place of religion and
family in maintaining order
Money based economy prevails
Replacing folk culture in industrialized countries
and many developing nations

GROUPING HUMANS
IN
CULTURE
How are humans groups defined?

Difference between Race and

Ethnicity
Race: attitudes formed

in consequence of being
a minority or majority
member (via privilege).
Not assumed to be
biological

Sociologist Max Weber

once remarked that:
"The whole conception
of ethnic groups is so
complex and so vague
that it might be good to
abandon it altogether.

Ethnicity: attitudes
formed associating with
Examples: Polish, Arab,
the traditions and
values of particular
Chinese, Japanese,
ethnic group.
Mexican, & French

Groups
Culture Groups
Defined by a variety of
characteristics or just
one:

Language/Literature
Religion/Values/Traditions
Politics/Beliefs
Food/Manners

Ethnic Groups
Ethno Gr. for
people
Ambiguous term
May depend on:

Biology
Culture
Allegiance
Historic background

Subjective
Subculture smaller
Ethnocentrism bundle of attributes
judge other cultures
shared by a smaller group

by own standards

Are you taboo?

Do you eat pork?
Have you ever kissed in public?
Should you have more than one
wife or husband?
Do you eat with your left hand?
Do you compliment physical
features?
Do you eat fertilized duck eggs?
Do you wear shoes in the house?
Have you ever talked back to an
adult?

Behavioral Geography
Approach to Human Geography that
examines human behavior
Studies perceptions of the world and how
perceptions influence behavior.
Pictures in our heads Mental Maps
People make decisions on their mental
maps
Cultural differences in perceptions
Proxemics (cross-cultural study of the use
of space)
Territoriality

CULTURE REGIONS/
CULTURE REALMS

What criteria is used to define the

1. Is it consistent?
Culture Region?
2. Is it meaningful?

What are the most obvious factors of cultural

diversity?

Language
Religion
Ethnicity
Architecture
Statues &
Monuments
Clothing/Style

Settlement patterns
Cluster Housing
Live together, work
together
Family or Religious bonds
Common security
Europe, Latin America,
Asia, Africa, & Middle East

Isolated Housing
Peace & security
Agricultural colonization
Anglo-America, Australia,
New Zealand, South Africa

Forces that Stabilize Culture Realms

Despite diffusion, cultures remain fixed
Inertia term for the force that keeps things
stable
Historical Geography
Studies the past and how geographic distributions have
changed
How people have interacted with their environment,
and created the cultural landscape.

Fixed Assets (Infrastructure)

Historical Consciousness (self reflection on history)
Values - Preserve key aspects of culture
Passed down from generation to generation

Trade & Cultural diffusion

Diminishes isolation
Triggers change - Important
force of diffusion
Trade, economy, and culture
intertwined
Part of Economic Geography
Study of how various people
make a living, how economies
develop, and trade

Export surplus, Import

Luxuries

Trends in Trade

More Trade, More Diffusion

Nearly all parts of the world are affected
Friction of Distance is less (costs down)
Felt needs are created (think you need)
Activities relocate freely footloose
Communication advances trades/ideas
Electronic highway
Cyberspace

Possible clash of Civilizations

GLOBAL DIFFUSION
OF EUROPEAN
CULTURE

Notes on European Culture

Widespread
(through
conquest)
Massive Impact
Progress or
unwanted
acculturation???
Illustrates all
types, paths, and
processes of

Cultural Imperialism
European ways are
superior
Christianity a major
catalyst (conversion)
Economic & military
superiority
Methods
Force
Training/schooling
Reference Group Behavior
(desire to belong)
Rewarding
Degrading

Westernization Today
Diffusion continues
Wealthy buy Western
products
Young adopt western
styles
Media & TV increase rate
of diffusion

Tourism
Non-Western
Professionals (Europe &
U.S.)
Transforming traditional
cultures/folk cultures

U.S. Influence
Very strong
9/11 Ripple Effect
Negative views of
American policies
Drugs
Peace-Keeping

Spread of U.S.
Culture
Economic Power

Ugly American
Used to describe boorish people
from the U.S. insensitive to those
in other countries
Bothers fans of the 1958 novel
The Ugly American, whose title
character was actually sensitive
and thoughtfulhe just looked
ugly
Are Americans truly ugly?

47 nations surveyed

Pew Global Attitudes Project

(6/2006)
America's Image
Slips
Spain, India, Russia,
Indonesia, & Turkey

U.S.-led war on
terror draws majority
support in just two
countries - India and
Russia
United States as the
worst culprit in
hurting the worlds
environment.

In Japan, barely a quarter of

respondents (26%) now favor
the U.S.-led war on terror
War in Iraq has made the
world a more dangerous
place
33 of the 47 countries polled
expressed a dislike of
American ideas about
democracy, with the hostility
highest in three allies:
Turkey, France and Pakistan.

What are American values?

Equal Opportunity
Achievement &
Success
(competition)
Material Comfort
Activity and Work
(action)
Practicality and
efficiency

Progress (move
forward)
Science
Democracy and Free
enterprise (individual
rights have
significant value)
Freedom (individual
over the group)
Racism and group
superiority