TESTING

Principles of X-ray NDT,

Equipment,
Calibration,
Image Collection,
Quantification, and
Interpretation.
High power sources and high quality films.
Digital Radiography,
Introduction to Tomography and
Laminography

INTRODUCTION

THREE COMMON NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS ARE USED FOR

WELD INSPECTION
1. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
2. ULTRASONIC TESTING
3. MAGNETIC FLAW DETECTION
The method of Radiographic Approach was used commonly in the past
until the arrival of Ultrasonic Inspection Technique
The major Difference between the TWO is that Ultrasonic Testing Detects
very Narrow flaws which can hardly be detected by Radiographic
method.
Moreover Ultrasonic inspection possesses the advantage that it
accurately and precisely locate a defect as well as figure out its depth,
location and angle of inclination

In the Past the Ultrasonic means expensive. Nowadays the rates

for both Ultrasonic and Radiography inspections methods are
comparable.
Most importantly the x-ray and gamma ray used in Radiographs
are Radioactive and Pose potential safety hazard to testing
technicians on site.

Penetrant Testing

Penetrant solution is applied to

the surface of the component.
The liquid is pulled into surfacebreaking defects by capillary
action.
Excess
penetrant
material is carefully cleaned
from the surface. A developer is
applied to pull the trapped
penetrant back to the surface
where it is spread out and forms
an indication. The indication is
much easier to see than the
actual defect.
Liquid penetrant testing is used

A magnetic field is established

in a component made from
ferromagnetic material. The
magnetic lines of force travel
through the material, and exit
and re-enter the material at
the poles. Defects such as
crack or voids cannot support
as much flux, and force some
of the flux outside of the part.
Magnetic particles distributed
over the component will be
attracted to areas of flux
leakage and produce a visible
indication.
Magnetic

particle

inspection

Alternating electrical current is

passed through a coil producing a
magnetic field. When the coil is
placed near a conductive
material, the changing magnetic
field induces current flow in the
material. These currents travel in
closed loops and are called eddy
currents. Eddy currents produce
their own magnetic field that can
be measured and used to find
flaws and characterize
conductivity, permeability, and
dimensional features.
Used to detect surface and near
surface flaws in conductive
materials, such as metals. Also

High frequency sound waves are

sent into a material by use of a
transducer. The sound waves
travel through the material and
are received by the same
transducer or a second
transducer. The amount of
energy transmitted or received
and the time the energy is
received are analyzed to
determine the presence of
flaws. Changes in material
thickness, and changes in
material properties can also be
measured.
Used

to

locate

surface

and

X-rays are used to produce

images of objects using film or
other detector that is sensitive
to radiation. The test object is
placed between the radiation
source and detector. The
thickness and the density of
the material that X-rays must
penetrate affects the amount
of radiation reaching the
detector. This variation in
radiation produces an image
on the detector that often
shows internal features of the
test object.
Used to inspect almost any

Weld
Testin
g

Discovery
Wilhelm
Rontgen
-A
professor from the age
of thirty, announced his
discovery of X-rays when
he was fifty, and then
wrote many important
papers about his further
experiments.

PENETRATION OF RADIATIONS

One of the characteristics of x- and

gamma radiations that makes them
useful for medical imaging is their
penetrating ability.
When they are directed into an object,
some of the photons are absorbed or
scattered, whereas others completely
penetrate the object.
The penetration can be expressed as
the fraction of radiation passing
through the object.
Penetration is the inverse of
attenuation.
The amount of penetration depends

PENETRATION PERCENTAGE IN 1 cm
Thickness

Penetration of Photons Vs Thickness

The relationship between the number of photons reaching a specific
point and the thickness of the material to that point is exponential
Half value layer (HVL)
is the most frequently
used quantity
for
describing both the
penetrating ability of
specific radiations and
the
penetration
through
specific
objects.
HVL is the thickness of
material penetrated by
one
half
of
the
radiation
and
is
expressed in units of

Penetration Vs Object Thickness

(HVLs)
The figure below illustrates an important aspect
of the HVL concept.
If the penetration through a thickness of 1 HVL
is 0.5 (50%), the penetration through a
thickness of 2 HVLs will be 0.5 x 0.5 or 25%.
Each succeeding layer of material with a
thickness of 1 HVL reduces the number of
photons by a factor of 0.5. The relationship
between penetration (P) and thickness of
material that is n half value layers thick is

P = (0.5 )n.

HVL VALUS OF MATERIALS when X-rays are passing

MATERIA HVL (mm)
L
30keV
60keV
Tissue
20
35
Aluminum 2.3
9.3
Lead
0.02
0.13

Approximate HVL for

Source
Various Materials
when Radiation is
Iridiumfrom a Gamma
192
Source
Cobalt60

120keV
45
16.6
0.15

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Concret Steel Lead Tungst Uraniu
e
en
m
44.5
12.7
4.8
3.3
2.8
(1.75) (0.5) (0.19) (0.13) (0.11)
60.5
21.6 12.5
7.9
6.9
(2.38) (0.85) (0.49) (0.31) (0.27)

Geometric unsharpness refers to the

loss of distinction that is the result of
geometric factors of the radiographic
equipment and setup.
It occurs because the radiation does not
originate from a single point but rather
over an area.
The
three
factors
controlling
unsharpness are source size, source to
object distance, and object to detector
distance.
The source size is obtained by
referencing
manufacturers
specifications for a given X-ray or
gamma ray source.

Geometric Unsharpness

For the case, such as that

shown to the right, where a
sample of significant thickness
is placed adjacent to the
detector, the following formula
is used to calculate the
maximum
amount
of
unsharpness due to specimen
thickness:
Ug = f * b/a
Where
f = source focal-spot size
a = distance from the source to

Geometric
Unsharpness

Geometric Unsharpness
For the case when the detector
is not placed next to the sample,
such
as
when
geometric
magnification is being used, the
calculation becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
Where,
f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source
to front surface of
material/object
b = distance from the front
surface of the object to the

ABSORPTION OF RADIATIONS
X-rays and Gamma-rays will penetrate through solid
materials, but partially absorbed by the medium.
The amount of absorption of radiations will depend
upon the density and thickness of the material
The penetrated radiations will be recorded on the
screen i.e. Sensitized paper or electronic sensing
equipment etc.

Radiography
Radiography Process in which an image is produced on film
Paper Radiography is the process of permanent image formation
on the radiation sensitive paper.
Xeroradiography is the process of latent image used to produce a
permanent image.
Fluoroscope is the process in which a transient image is produced
on a fluorescent screen
Radiation Gauging is the process of monitoring the intensity of
the radiation passing through a material.
Neutron radiography is the technique of using neutrons for the
inspection purpose

Principle of Radiography
X or gamma radiations cannot be focused as visible light. The radiations
from the x or gamma rays are conical.
Some of the radiations will be absorbed by the object but some will travel
through the object and impinge on the film producing a latent image.
If the object contains a flaw which has different absorptive power from that
of the object material, the radiation energy will differ from that emerging
from adjacent region of the object.
Since there is different image density through the flaw, the flaw will be seen
as a shadow within the developed radiograph.
The developed radiograph is a two dimensional representation.
The position of the flaw within a test piece cannot be determined exactly
with a single radiograph but by taking several radiographs with the beam
directed at the object from a different angle for each exposure.

X-Ray Equipment
Equipment Consists of
1. X-Ray tube
2. Arrangement to heat the tube
filament to produce electrons
3.Arrangement to accelerate
electrons to generate high
impact energy
4.Accessories to rectify, regulate
and measure current and
voltage and
5.Provisions to measure x-ray
exposure

 X ray tube is a highly evacuated hard glass bulb containing a

cathode and anode target.
The pressure inside the tube is 10-6 mm of mercury.
The cathode is a tungsten filament F and is heated by passing a
current through it from a low tension battery.
Electrons are emitted by the process of thermionic emission
from the cathode.
The filament is surrounded by Molybdenum Cylinder G kept at a
negative potential to the filament. The electrons emitted from
the filament are collimated into a fine pencil of electron beam

 The target T consists of a copper block in which a piece

of Tungsten or Molybdenum is fixed.
The anode should have the following characteristics:
(i) High atomic weight- to produce hard X-rays
(ii) High melting point- So that it is not melted due to
the bombardment of fast moving electrons which cause
lot of heat generation.
(iii) High thermal conductivity- To carry away the heat
generated

 The face of the copper anode is sloped at about 45 to the

electron beam. Being good conductor of heat, copper helps to
conduct the heat efficiently to the water cooling system.
A high potential of about 20kV is applied between filament F
and the target T. Due to this high potential difference, the
electrons emitted from the filament are accelerated.
When these accelerated electrons strike the target, they give up
their kinetic energy and thereby produce x-rays.
The intensity of x-rays depends upon the number of electrons
striking the target, i.e. the rate of emission of electrons from the
filament. This can be controlled by varying the filament current.

 Power supply for heating the filament of the x-ray tube

is 12-15 Volts.
Rectifiers are used to improve the quality and quantity
of x-rays output.
Commercially available x-ray units are two types
(a) Cathode grounded = Unipolar type- 50-150KV- (515mA)
(b)Anode grounded = Unipolar type
(c) Centre tap grounded = Bipolar-200-400KV-(1030mA)

Selection of X-ray Units

The degree of penetration must be sufficient to accommodate
maximum thickness of materials encountered.
The exposure time must be short in order to cope with the volume
of work
The duty cycle must be high enough (extent to which a unit can be
operated continuously)
The image quality must be such that all small flaws can be
identified
Ease of movement and setting up of exposure
Reliability of operation

Scattered Radiation
When the object is in the path of X-rays or gamma rays, gives rise to
scattered radiation. This is due to
(a)Secondary radiation produced due to the interaction of the object
and the x-rays
(b) Reflection of radiation from the surrounding objects like walls and
floor
Scattered radiation has low energy and less penetration compared to
primary beam causes poor image quality.
Secondary radiation is referred to as internal scatter, forward scatter
and back scatter
The undesired effect of secondary radiation from the above sources
can be avoided by sandwiching the film between a pair of lead screens.

Secondary or scattered photons create a loss of

contrast and definition.
Secondary radiation striking the film reflected from
an object in the immediate area
Control of side scatter can be achieved by moving
objects in the room away from the film, moving the xray tube to the center of the vault, or placing a
collimator at the exit port.
Backscatter when it comes from objects behind the
film a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of the
cassette to verify the control of backscatter.
If the letter "B" shows as a "ghost" image on the
film, a significant amount of backscatter radiation is
reaching the film.
The control of backscatter radiation is achieved by
backing the film in the cassette with a sheet of lead
that is at least 0.010 inch thick.

Secondary (Scatter)
Radiation

Filters
At x-ray energies, filters to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons emitted by
the tube before they reach the target.
The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy x-ray
photons that tend to scatter more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of
part of the x-ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of
a metal inserted in the x-ray beam).
Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the direct path of the xray beam.
Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film cassette has also
proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often
constructed of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass.
The thickness of filter materials is dependent on atomic numbers, kilovoltage
settings, and the desired filtration factor.
Gamma radiography produces relatively high energy levels at essentially
monochromatic radiation, therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is
seldom used.

Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt

thickness changes are likely to suffer from
undercut if controls are not put in place.
Undercut appears as a darkening of the
radiograph in the area of the thickness
transition.
This results in a loss of resolution or blurring at
the transition area.
Undercut occurs due to scattering within the
film.
The faster the film speed, the more undercut that
is likely to occur
Masks are used to control undercut.
Sheets of lead cut to fill holes or surround the
part
Metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often
used as masks.

Radiation Undercut

UNDERCU
TS

Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods
are available to display the final
image in industrial radiography:
Film Radiography
Real Time Radiography
Computed Tomography (CT)
Digital Radiography (DR)
Computed Radiography (CR)

Film Radiography
One of the most widely used and
oldest imaging mediums in
industrial radiography is
radiographic
film.
microscopic material called silver
Film contains

bromide.
Once exposed to radiation and developed in a
darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic
silver which forms the image.

Putting emulsion on both sides of the

base doubles the amount of radiationsensitive silver halide, and thus increases
the film speed.
The emulsion layers are thin enough so
developing, fixing, and drying can be
accomplished in a reasonable time.
A few of the films used for radiography
only have emulsion on one side which
produces the greatest detail in the image.

Film selection
Factors to be considered:
Composition, shape, and size
of the part or flaw of interest
and thickness and material
density of the object being
examined and, in some cases,
its weight and location.
Type of radiation used,
whether x-rays from an x-ray
generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
Kilovoltages available with
the x-ray equipment or the
intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high
radiographic detail or quick
and economical results.

For light alloys like Aluminum,

magnesium and titanium of
thin sections high resolution
and contrast sensitivity is of
overall importance, a slower
and finer grained film should

The PXB2.5D
portable X-Ray
Betatron is
designed to
produce high
energy ionising
radiation for
industrial
radiographic
non-destructive
testing. HLV for
Steel is 20mm

Film Radiography (cont.)

Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays
and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a light
proof cassette in a darkroom.
This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the
source of radiation. Film is often placed between lead screens
to intensify the effects of the radiation.

In order for the image to be viewed, the

film must be developed in a darkroom.
The process is very similar to photographic
film development.
Film processing can either be performed
manually in open tanks or in an automatic
processor.

Film
Radiography
(cont.)

FILM
PROCESSING
Film processing refers to a series of
steps that produce a visible
permanent image on a radiograph.
AIMS OF PROCESSING
-To convert the latent image (invisible)
on the film into a visible image.
-To preserve the visible image so that it
is permanent and does not disappear
from the radiograph.

88

PROCESSING METHODS
A.) Manual Processing: Three methods
Time temperature method
Modified time temperature method
Visual method
B.) Automatic Processing
C.) Day Light Processing
D.) Self Developing Films
89

MANUAL FILM PROCESSING STEPS

Consists of following five steps:
i) Development
ii) Rinsing
iii)Fixing
iv)Washing
v) Drying

90

Development
It is the first stage in
processing of the
radiograph.
Amplifies latent image by
100,000,000!
The
primary
purpose:
convert the invisible latent
image into visible form.
Processing initiated at
latent image speck

Chemistry Of Developer
Development is a process of chemical reduction.
The reduction is achieved by the developer donating
electrons to silver ions in the exposed silver bromide
and iodide grains converting them to atoms of metallic
silver.
Ag+ + electron Ag
The mode of action of developer is not fully understood
but the existence of electric charge barriers around
the halide grains is thought to be involved.

Charge Barriers
UNEXPOSED GRAIN

Both exposed and unexposed silver bromide

grains are surrounded by a negative charge
barrier of bromide ions created by the excess of
potassium bromide employed in the synthesis of
silver bromide during the manufacture of
emulsion.

The charge barrier protects the silver bromide

from attack by electrons in the developer
solution.

Charge Barriers
EXPOSED GRAIN

Exposed silver bromide grains possess a

weakness in the charge barrier caused by the
presence of neutral silver atoms, which have
collected at the sensitivity speck.

This development center enables electrons from

the developer to penetrate the grain and reduce
all its silver ions to metallic silver.

Development
Silver atoms at
latent image
center act as
catalyst
Grain either
develops entirely
or not at all

Constituents Of The Developer

Replenisher solution:
This consists of:
1. Solvent
2. Developing agents
3. Accelerator
4. Buffers
5. Restrainer
6. Preservative
7. Hardener
8. Sequestering agents

1. Solvent
Water is the solvent commonly used in replenisher
solution.
This also controls developer activity by diluting its effects.
It has a softening effect on the gelatin, thus allowing the
developing chemicals to penetrate the emulsion and act
on the silver halides.
The presence of calcium salts in the water (hard water)
may form a chalky deposit or scum on the surface of the
film.
More serious would be contamination of the solvent with
dissolved metals like copper and iron. The presence of
only a fewer parts per million of copper could cause
chemical fogging.
In practice, such effects are extremely rare.

2. Developing Agents
These are the reducing agents, which carry out the
primary function of supplying the electrons that convert
the exposed silver halide grains to silver.
Characteristics:
1. Selectivity
2. High activity: Selectivity and activity tend to be antagonistic
properties.
An agent with high activity generally has low selectivity and vice versa.

3. Should be resistant to bromide ions in the solution.

 No single agent satisfies all these requirements

Modern X-ray developers use a combination of 2
developing agents phenidone and hydroquinone
known as PQ developer.
Phenidone is a quick acting reducing agent
capable of developing all exposed silver halide
grains. However, its selectivity is low and if
used alone would result in high fog levels.
Hydroquinone requires a strong alkaline
medium for its action. This is more selective
than phenidone but slower in onset of action.
Once its action has begun the development
proceeds vigorously although lightly exposed
grains are not affected by hydroquinone.
Hydroquinone and Phenidone High Contrast
Metol High Speed/Low Contrast/Fine grain

Reaction
Involves donation of Electron by developing agent to
form metallic Silver by Silver Ion (with inactivation of
developing agent and liberation of hydrogen ions )

Alkaline
Medium

 Advantages of PQ developers
1. Tolerant of
concentration.

increase

in

bromine

ion

2. High selectivity and low chemical fog.

3. Adequate
activity
concentrations.

even

in

4. Available in liquid concentrate form.

5. Fast acting
6. Adequate contrast
7. Super additive effect

low

SUPER ADDITIVE EFFECT

3. Accelerators: PQ
developers
need
alkaline medium for their action (10 - 11.5
pH). Includes Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium
Carbonate and Borates.
This alkali is known as accelerator since its
effect is to accelerate the developing process.

4. Buffers: It has the effect of maintaining

the pH of a solution within close limits.
Normally adequate buffering action is provided
by the carbonates used as accelerators and
sulphides used as preservatives.
Thus no
additional buffers are necessary.

5. Anti-Foggants/Restrainers

Decrease the formation of Fog (fog is the

development of the unexposed silver halide grains
that do not contain a latent image ).
It also decrease the development of the latent
image.
Anti-foggants permit rapid development of exposed
grains at higher temp with minimized fog
development.
The development process itself produces as a
byproduct potassium bromide which is a very
effective restrainer.
So the developer replenisher need not include
potassium bromide among its constituents. However
it is usual to provide a powerful restrainer /
antifoggant such as benzotriazole.

6. Preservatives
Sodium sulphite
Oxidized products of developing agents form colored material that
can stain the emulsion, sodium sulphite forms colorless soluble
products after combining with colored oxidized products of
developing agents (sulfonates).
It acts as a preservative by preventing oxidation of hydroquinone by
removing dissolved oxygen in the solution and at the interface.
oxidation

Sodium Sulphite

Coloured product
(stain the emulsion)

7. Hardeners:
Powerful organic hardeners such as gluteraldehyde
which prevent the excessive swelling of gelatin in the
emulsion when it absorbs water during development.
If the emulsion is over hardened the speed with which the
developing agents penetrate the silver halide grains is
reduced.

8. Sequestering agents: Prevent precipitation of

insoluble mineral salts, which tend to occur in hard
water areas. Compounds based on EDTA are used for
this purpose.

RINSING
A continuous, gentle rinsing for 30 sec in water is
necessary after developing
i)To dilute the developer and slowing the
development process
ii)To remove alkali activator.

108

FIXING
It has 4 major functions:
1. To stop further development
Making it acidic

2. To clear the image

by removing the remaining silver halide from emulsion

3. To fix the image

no longer sensitive to light

4. To complete the process of hardening of the film

emulsion

Constituents of the fixing

solution:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Solvent
Fixing agent
Acid
Hardener
Buffer
Preservative
Anti-sludging agent

1. Solvent
Water

2. Fixing Agent
2 agents:

Cyanides
Poisonous
Not generally used.

Thiosulfates - Sodium and Ammonium Salt (more active)

called Hypo.

AgBr + sod. Thiosulfate

Ag thiosulfate complex + NaBr

(water soluble)

3. Acid:
Prevents dichoric fog by inhibiting developing
agents.
Provides a suitable environment for the
hardening agents in the fixer.
Acetic acid is used usually at a pH of 4-4.5.
4. Hardener:
Reduces drying time and prevents physical
damage.
Aluminium chloride and aluminium sulfate (or
Chromium compounds) are used commonly.
5. Buffer:
Prevents sulphurization.
Neutralizes the developer
Optimizes hardener activity

6. Preservative:
Retards decomposition of thiosulphates
Sodium sulphate is commonly used
7. Antisludging agent:
Boric acid is commonly used and this prevents
sludging of insoluble aluminium compounds in
the hardener.

WASHING
Necessary to thoroughly
remove all the excess
chemicals from the
emulsion.

DRYING
- Should be air dried at

room temperature in a

115

Time temperature method :

Before processing check the levels of developer and fixer

solution.
If the solution level is low add fresh solution.
Never add water to raise the level of the solution, as it
dilutes the strength of chemicals.
Stirring the processing solution with a stirring rod or
paddle.
Stirring the solution mixes the chemicals and regularizes
the temperature of the solution.
Check the temperature of the developer solution. The
optimum temperature for developer is between 650 F to
750 F. If the temperature of the developer solution is
outside this range circulating water tap must be
regularized to adjust the tap and sufficient time must be
allowed to reach the correct temperature.

116

 Close and lock the dark room turn off the overhead
white light and turn on the safelight.
Remove the exposed film from its lightproof packet,
using only safe light illumination.
Hold the film only from their edges.
Clip the bare film to the hanger clip( 1 film to a
single clip ).
Based on the temperature of developer solution and
the instruction of manufacture, set the timer. A timetemperature chart is used to determine the time.

117

118

 Immerse the film hangers with the films into

developer solution.
Film must not contact one another or the sides of
the processing tanks during development.
Gently agitate the film hanger up and down,
Several times to prevent air bubbles from dinging
to the film.
Hang the film hanger on the edge of the insert
tank and make serve that all the films immersed in
the developer.
Activate the timer and cover the processing tank.
When the timer goes off, cover off the processing
tank, remove the film hanger with film from the
developer solution, and place it in the circulating
water of the rinsing tank.

119

 Immerse the film hangers with films in fixer solution and gently agitate
it for 5 seconds every 30 seconds. This eliminates air bubbles and
brings fresh fixer in touch with emulsion.
When the timer goes off uncover the processing tank and remove the
films from the fixer and drain excess of fixer into the wash bath.
The films are then placed in running water for atleast 10 min.
Further surface moisture is removed by gently shaking off the excess
water form the film and the hanger.
Dry the film in circulating, moderately warm air.
If a heated drying cabinet is used the temperature should not exceed
1200 F.
Remove the dry radiographs from the film hangers and use a view box
to examine the radiographs and place then in an envelope labeled with
patients name and date of exposure.

120

Modified time temperature method :

In this method depending upon the temperature of
solution, the developing time is divided on daily basis.
A table or a chart can be prepared by specifying
developing time for a range of daytime temperature.

Advantage :
Temperature need not be maintained at particular level
and at the same time consistent image quality can be
gained.
Disadvantage :
For every brand of developer separate time
temperature chart should be prepared.

121

Visual method :
In this method the exposed x-ray film is
immersed in developing solution. For about 10
sec and then removed and observed in the safe
light.
If adequate image have been obtained then it is
put for rinsing, other wise re-inserted in the
developing solution till adequate image is
obtained.
Disadvantage : This method is highly objective in
nature and doesnt give consistent quality.
122

LOCATION
Centrally located
Serviced by hatches
from the adjacent
imaging room
Away from damp or
hot areas
Accessible in terms of
power and water
supply
Adjoining viewing
room

SIZE
Minimum floor area of 10 sq meter
Ceiling height of 2.5 - 3 meter
Size may be reduced depending upon the department
needs

RADIATION PROTECTION
Walls adjacent to the radiographic room should be
shielded with correct thickness of the lead all the way
to the ceiling
In the interests of both darkroom staff and film material
alike
1.6 mm lead is mostly used

FLOORS
Non-porous flooring
Non-slip flooring
Chemical resistant
Stain proof
Durable & easy to
maintain
Light coloured (low-light
working conditions)

Asphalt tiles

Porcelain tiles

Clay tiles

Plastic tiles may be used in the dry dark-rooms

WALLS/CEILING
Light in colour to reflect as much light as possible onto
the working surface
Easy to wipe or clean
Covered with chemical resistant materials
Special paints, varnish, ceramic or plastic wall

VENTILATION AND HEATING

Satisfactory working conditions for the staff
Good film handling and storage conditions
Efficient automatic processor performance
Relative humidity is maintained at around 40-60 %
Room temperature maintained between 18-20 degree
celsius
A minimum of 10 air changes per hour
All of these conditions can be achieved by using a good
air-conditioning system
Alternatively, fairly satisfactory ventilation can be
achieved by using an extractor fan sited higher than and
diagonally opposite a second fan, the latter being so
placed as to obtain fresh and filtered air from outside.

TYPE OF ENTRANCE
SINGLE DOOR SYSTEM
DOUBLE DOOR SYSTEM
MAZE TYPE ENTRANCE
LABYRINTH
ROTATING DOOR SYSTEM

DOUBLE DOOR ENTRANCE

MAZE TYPE ENTRANCE

LABYRINTH ENTRANCE

ROTATING DOOR ENTRANCE

Fire Safety
Ideally, all darkrooms should be provided with an
alternative exit, which should be indicated clearly and
left unobstructed at all times

DARK ROOM ILLUMINATION

WHITE LIGHTING
SAFELIGHTING

WHITE LIGHTING
For inspection & maintenance of cassettes &
screens
Cleaning of work surfaces
Servicing of equipment
Sited close to the ceiling
Moderate in intensity
(60w tungsten, 30w fluorescent )

Preferably centrally placed

More than one switch preferable
Identification of respective switches is important

SAFE LIGHTING
DIRECT SAFE LIGHTING:
Light from safe lamp
directly falls onto the work
surface
Eg. Beehive safelamp

Minimum distance of 1.2

m from the working
surface
Best for loading &
unloading areas

INDIRECT SAFE LIGHTING

Directs the light towards the ceiling which reflects light
back into the room
Is intended to provide general illumination of the dark
room
Suspended atleast 2.1 m above floor level

Safe lamp for both direct & indirect illumination

FILM PROCESSING
SOLUTIONS
Obtained in following forms :
i)

Powder

ii)

Ready to use liquid

iii) Liquid concentrate

-Both powder and liquid concentrate forms must be mixed with distilled water.
-Liquide concentrate form is popular-easy to mix and occupies little storage
space.
-Fresh chemical solutions produce the best radiographs.

To Maintain Freshness:
i)Solutions must be replenished daily.
ii)Must be changed after every 3-4weeks.

Two special chemical solutions are necessary for film processing:

iv) Developer
v)

Fixer

141

DEVELOPING SOLUTION:
i)

Developer

ii) Preservative
iii) Accelerator
iv) Restainer

FIXER SOLUTION:
v) Fixing agent
vi) Preservative
vii) Acidifier
viii)Hardening agent
142

DEVELOPING SOLUTION
I.) DEVELOPER
- Developing solution convert the exposed silver halide
crystals into black metallic silver grains.
- This process begins at latent image sites.
- At latent image site, electrons from the developing agents
are conducted into the silver halide crystals and reduces
the constitute silver ion to solid grains of metallic silver.
- Unexposed silver halide crystals, are unaffected during
the time of reduction of exposed crystals into metallic
silver.
143

2 components of developing solution:

i) Phenidone
- First electron donor
- This electron transfer generates the oxidized form of
phenidone.
ii)

Hydroquinone

- Provides an electron, to reduce the oxidized phenidone

back to its active state, so that it can continue to
reduce silver halide grains to metallic silver.
144

II.)

ACTIVATOR

- Alkaline in nature
- Developing agents are active only at alkaline PH
values( high PH) .
- Achieved by adding alkali compounds
a.) Sodium or potassium hydroxide
b.) Buffer-sodium bicarbonate
- This causes the gelatin to swell so that developing
agents easily diffuse with emulsion.
145

III) PRESERVATIVE
- Sodium sulfite (antioxiant)
- Prevents oxidation of developing agents
- Preservative is added with brown
oxidized developer. This makes the
solution colourless.

146

IV) RESTAINER
- Potassium bromide and Benzatriazole.
- Prevents the developement of unexposed silver halide
crystals
- It depresses the reduction of both exposed and
unexposed silver halide crystals but are more effective
in reduction of unexposed silver halide crystals.

- The restainer acts as antifog agent and increases

the contrast.
147

DEVELOPER REPLENISHER
-During normal course of film processing:
i)Phenidone and hydroquinone are consumed from solution.
ii)Bromide ions and byproducts are released into the solution
iii)Developer solution gets inactivated by exposure of oxygen.
-These actions produces a seasoned solution.
-Hence developer sol must be replenished daily to prolong the
life of seasoned solution
-Recommended amout-8 ounces/gallon of developer solution.

148

FIXING SOLUTION
I)CLEARING AGENT
- Ammonium thiosulfate
- Dissolves and removes the unexposed silver halide grains.
- Ammonium thiosulfate forms a stable, water soluble
complexes with silver ions (silver thiosulfate complex),
which then diffuses from the emulsion.
- Thiosulfate does not have a rapid effect on the metallic
silver grains in the film emulsion
- But excessive fixation results in loss of film density,
because the grains of silver slowly dissolve in the acetic
acid of fixing solution.

149

II.) ACIDIFIER
-Contains an acetic acid buffer system (PH 4-4.5)
-This acidic PH required for
a.) good diffusion of thiosulfate into the emulsion
b.) silver thiosulfate complex out of the emulsion.
- Inactivate any carryover developing agents in the film
emulsion, hence blocks the further development of any
unexposed crystals.

150

III.) PRESERVATIVE
-Sodium sulfite
-Prevents oxidation of clearing agents as they are
unstable in the acidic environment of fixing solution.

-Binds with any colored oxidized developer carried over

into the fixing solution, and removed it from the
solution.
-This prevents oxidized developer from staining the film.
151

IV.) HARDNER
- Aluminium sulfate
- This complexes with gelatin and hardens the gelatin during
fixing process.
-

reduces the swelling of emulsion

Lessens mechanical damage to the emulsion

Limits water absorption

shortening drying time.

152

PROCESSING ROOM
REQUIREMENTS

A well planned dark room makes the processing easier, which should be of
atleast 4 5 feet (1.2 1.5 m ).
Characteristics of darkroom :
i) Convenient location and adequate size
ii) Ample working space with adequate storage
iii) Lighting
iv) Temperature and humidity controlled
v) Darkroom plumbing
vi) Miscellaneous

153

LOCATION-Darkroom should be located near the area

where the x-ray units are installed.

SIZE-darkroom size is determined by the following

factors:
-Volume of radiographs processed & Number of persons
using the room.

WORKING SPACE
-Adequate counter area where films can be unwrapped.
-A clean, organized work area is essential which should be
free of processing chemicals, water, dust, and debris.

STORAGE SPACE

154

LIGHTING
-The room must be completely dark and must exclude all visible
light.
-Any leaks of white light in the darkroom causes film fog.
Two types of lighting are essential in darkroom.
i)Room lighting (white illumination) and
ii)Safe lighting.
Room lighting :Incandescent room lighting is required to perform
task such as cleaning, stocking materials and mixing chemicals,
this is not associated with the act of processing films.
Safe lighting :
- Special kind of lighting of relatively long wavelength and low
intensity illumination that does not rapidly affect open film but
permits one to see well enough to work in the area.
- To minimize the fogging effect of prolonged exposure, the safe light
should have a 15 W bulb and a safe light filter(red GBX-2 filter ).

155

-It should be mounted atleast 4 feet (1.2 metes)

above the surface where films are handled.

156

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

-Should be controlled to prevent film damage.
-Room temp of 70 degree F is recommended ; if exceeds 90 degree
F,film fog results.
-Humidity level of between 50 and 70 percent should be
maintained; when too high, film emulsion does not dry; when too
low, static electricity becomes a problem and causes film artifacts.

DARKROOM PLUMBING
Must include both hot and cold running water along with mixing
valves
to adjust the water temperature in the processing tanks with utility
sink.

MISCELLANEOUS REQUIREMENTS:
i)Wastebasket for disposal of all film wrappings.
ii)x-ray view box used to examine radiographs.

157

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING

-Prepare darkroom, if daylight loader is

not part of automatic processor.
-Close and lock the door of darkroom.
-Turn off the overhead white light, and
turn on the safelight.
-For intraoral films, carefully unwrap
each exposed film over a clean working
surface.
-For extra-oral films carefully remove the
film from the cassette.
-Handle all the films by the edges only.

158

-Insert each unwrapped film into the film feed slot of the
processor, one at a time.
-Allow at-least 10 sec between the insertion of each film.
-Do not turned the films sideways or insert too quickly,
they will overlap; overlapped films results in non
diagnostic radiographs.
-After films are inserted, allow 4-6 min for automated
processing to occur.
-Retrieve the processed radiographs from the film
recovery slot on the outside of the automatic
processor.

159

ADVANTAGES
Time saving .
Constant film quality is achieved, due to fixed processing
cycles.
Need for dark room is eliminated.
Less floor space is required.
Chemicals can be replenished automatically by machine.
Large number of films can be processed continuously.
160

DISADVANTAGES
Equipment is relatively expensive.
Strict maintenance and regular change is
required, dirty rollers produce marked
films.
Films may get lost in the tank

161

Day Light Processing Method

-Any processing method that doesnt need a dark room is
called as daylight processing method.
-Both manual and automatic processing can be executed
in this manner.
-Manual day light processing involves stripping the film
inside a light proof pouch.
-Then processing steps are carried out manually as usual
but in daylight.
-If an automatic processor has a daylight-loading
chamber and since the entire assembly is enclosed in a
light proof contains, it also can be called as daylight
processing method.
-Elimination of need for a darkroom is the only advantage
in this method.

162

SELF DEVELOPING FILMS

-Self-developing films are an alternative.
-The x-ray film is presented in a special sachet, containing
developer and fixer.
-Following exposure the developer tab is pulled, unveiling
developer solution, which is milked down towards the film
and massaged around it gently.
- After about 15 seconds, the fixer tab is pulled to release fixer
solution, which is similarly milked down to the film.
-After fixing the used chemicals are discarded and the film is
rinsed thoroughly under running water about 10 minutes.

163

Advantages :
No dark room or processing facilities are needed.
Time saving.

Disadvantages :
Poor over all image quality.
Image detoriates rapidly over time.
No lead foil inside the film hence less flexible and
can be easily bent .
These films are difficult to use in position holders.
Relatively expensive

164

EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Manual Processing tanks
Timer
Thermometer
Film hangers
Miscellaneous equipments
165

MANUAL PROCESSING TANK

-Has 2 insert tanks and 1 master tank
-Constructed of stainless steel
-Does not react with processing solutions and easy to clean.
-practical size for a master tank in dental office is about 20 25 cm

INSERT TANKS:
-2 removable 1-gallon ( 3.8 L) insert tanks hold the developer and fixer
solutions, placed in master tank.
-Developer solution is placed on the left and fixer solution placed on
right in the master tank.
-Water in master tank seperates the two insert tanks.

MASTER TANK:
-Filled with circulating water.
-An overflow pipe is used to control the water level in the master tank.

166

167

TIMER:
- A timer is use to signal the radiographer
that the films must be removed from the
current processing solution.
- Development time depends on the
temperature of the developer solution.

168

THERMOMETER
-Use to determine the temperature of developer solution;
optimum temp is 68 degree F, below 60 degree F
chemical works too slowely, results in under
development; above 80 F chemical works too rapidly,
will cause film fog.
-Floating thermometer or one that is clipped to the side of
the developer tank may be used.
-Temperature of developer sol, determine the
development time.

169

FILM HANGERS
-Also known as processing hangers.
-Device equipped with clips used to hold films during processing.
-Made up of stainless steel.
-Available in various sizes and can hold upto 20 intraoral films.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENTS
i)

Stirring rods-made up of plastic or glass use to stirr the developer

an fixer solutions, and equalizes the temperature of the solutions.

ii) Plastic apron-use to protect clothing during the processing of

films and mixing of chemicals.

170

AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR (Uses a roller transport

system)
PROCESSOR HOUSING:
-Encases all the the component parts of the automatic processor.
FILM FEED SLOT:
-Opening on the outside of the processor housing used to insert
unwrapped films into the automatic processor .

ROLLER FILM TRANSPORTER:

- System of rollers ( propelled by motor driven gears and belts)
used to move the film rapidly through the developer, fixer,
water, and drying compartments.
- Rollers produces wrining action that removes the excess
solution from the emulsion.

171

DEVELOPER COMPARTMENT:
-Holds the developer solution.
-Developing solution is Specially formulated for automatic processor and
different from developing solution used in manual processing.
-A hardening chemical glutaraldehyde is added to the conventional
manual processing developing solution, to prevent the emulsion from
softening and sticking to the solution.
-Sulfate compounds are also added to the manual processing developer,
to minimize the swelling of the emulsion, so that the films can be
transported by the roller uniformly.
-Because the total processing time is reduced in automatic processing,
the chemical concentration and temperature of the developing
solutions must be increased.

172

FIXING COMPARTMENT:
-Holds fixer solution
-Film directly transfer to fixer from developer without rinsing
step.
-In fixer solution, the film is rapidly fixed and then hardened.
-Fixing solution is Specially formulated for automatic processor
and different from fixing solution used in manual processing.
-Fixing solution for automatic processor is highly concentrated
chemical solution, that contains additional hardening agents.
173

WATER COMPARTMENT:
Holds circulating water, used to wash the films after
fixation.
DRYING CHAMBERS:
Holds heated air, used to dry wet film.
FILM RECOVERY SLOT:
Opening on the outside of the processor housing, where
the dry, processed radiograph emerges from the
automatic processor.

174

GENERAL SAFETY RULES IN

DARKROOM
Limit access to the darkroom. Only approved persons with
safety training should be allowed to work in the room.
Keep the work area clean.
Wet and dry areas should be clearly separated.
Always segregate chemicals.
Do not store chemicals on the floor.
Do not eat, drink or smoke in the darkroom.

175

 The darkroom should be well ventilated (10 20 air

changes per hour).
Always wash hands with soap and warm water after
working with chemicals.
Always Add Acid to water, never water to acid. (Remember
AAA)
Label all containers.
Keep all containers and trays closed or covered when not
in use to prevent the release of toxic gases.
Do not use paper towels or to clean up acid spills as this
may cause a fire .

176

MOUNTING RADIOGRAPHS
Radiographs must be preserved and maintained
in the most satisfactory and useful condition.
Periapical, interproximal, and occlusal films are
best handled and stored in a film mount.
Mounts are made of plastic or cardboard and
may have a clear plastic window that covers and
protects the film.
However, the window may have scratches or
imperfections that interfere with radiographic
interpretation

177

 The operator can arrange several films from the

same individual in a film mount in the proper
anatomic relationship.
The preferred method of positioning periapical
and occlusal films in the film mount is to arrange
them so that the images of the teeth are in the
anatomic position and have the same
relationship to the viewer as when the viewer
faces the patient.
The radiographs of the teeth in the right
quadrants should be placed in the left side of
the mount and those of the left quadrants in the
right side.
178

WASTE MANAGEMENT OF DARK

ROOM
The primary ingredient of concern in processing
solutions is the dissolved silver found in used fixer.
Another material of concern is the lead foil found in film
packet.
Several means are available for properly disposing of
the silver and lead. Silver may be recovered from the
fixer by using either metallic' replacement or
electroplating methods.
Metallic replacement uses cartridges through which
waste solutions are poured. In this process, iron goes
into the solution and the silver precipitates as a sludge.

179

 In the electroplating method, the waste solutions

come in contact with two electrodes, through which
a current passes. The cathode captures the silver. In
either case, the scrap silver can be sold to silver
refiners and buyers.
The lead foil "is separated from the packets and
collected until enough has been accumulated to sell
to a scrap metal dealer. Dental offices also should
consider using companies licensed to pick up waste
materials.

180

Development of Radiography film

1)Development - The developing agent gives up electrons to
convert the silver halide grains to metallic silver. Grains that
have been exposed to the radiation develop more rapidly,
but given enough time the developer will convert all the
silver ions into silver metal. Proper temperature control is
needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver while
keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
2)Stopping the development - The stop bath simply stops the
development process by diluting and washing the developer
away with water.
3)Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the
fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals,
leaving the silver metal behind.
4)Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all the
processing chemicals.
5)Drying - The film is dried for viewing.

Film Radiography (cont.)

Once developed, the film
is typically referred to as a
radiograph.

Radiographic
Image Quality

Subject contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of
radiation intensities transmitted
through different areas of the
component being evaluated
dependent on:
the absorption differences in the
component
the wavelength of the primary
radiation
intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to
scattering

The larger the difference in

thickness or density between two
areas of the subject, the larger the
difference in radiographic density
or contrast.
low kilovoltage will generally result in
a radiograph with high contrast
low energy radiation is more easily

Subject contrast
As contrast sensitivity increases, the
latitude of the radiograph decreases.
Radiographic latitude refers to the
range of material thickness that can be
imaged.
more areas of different thicknesses will be
visible in the image.

The goal is to balance radiographic

contrast and latitude so that there is
enough contrast to identify the
features of interest but also to make
sure the latitude is great enough so
that all areas of interest can be
inspected with one radiograph.
In thick parts with a large range of

Film contrast
Film contrast:
density differences that result due to:

the type of film used

how it was exposed, and
how it was processed.
Since there are other detectors besides
film, this could be called detector
contrast, but the focus here will be on
film.
Exposing a film to produce higher film
densities will generally increase the
contrast in the radiograph.

Film contrast
A typical film characteristic curve,
which shows how a film responds
to different amounts of radiation
exposure,is shown to the right.
From the shape of the curves, it
can be seen that when the film has
not seen many photon interactions
(which will result in a low film
density) the slope of the curve is
low.
In this region of the curve, it takes
a large change in exposure to
produce a small change in film
density. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the film is relatively low.
It can be seen that changing the
log of the relative exposure from
0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film
density from 0.20 to about 0.30.
However, at film densities above
2.0, the slope of the characteristic
curve for most films is at its
maximum.

In this region of the curve, a

relatively small change in
exposure will result in a
relatively large change in film
density.
In general, the highest overall
film density that can be
conveniently viewed or
digitized will have the highest
level of contrast and contain
the most useful information.

Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic definition
is the abruptness of
change in going from
one area of a given
radiographic density to
another.
Like contrast, definition
also makes it easier to
Since radiographic contrast
see
features of interest,
and definition are not
such
as defects,
dependent
upon the same set
of factors, it is possible to
produce radiographs with the
following qualities:
Low contrast and poor
definition
High contrast and poor

Radiographic Density

Radiographic density (or

film density) is a measure
of the degree of film
darkening.

Transmitta Percent Inverse of Film

nce
Transmitta Transmitta Density
(It/I0)
nce
nce
(Log(I0/I
(I0/It)
t))
1.0
100%
1
0
0.1
10%
10
1
0.01
1%
100
2
0.001
0.1%
1000
3
0.0001
0.01%
10000
4
0.00001
0.001%
100000
5
0.000001 0.0001%
1000000
6
0.0000001 0.00001% 10000000
7

Technically it should be
called "transmitted
density" when associated
with transparent-base film
since it is a measure of
the light transmitted
through the film.
Industrial codes and
Radiographic density is
standards typically
the logarithm of two
require a radiograph
measurements: the
intensity of light incident to have a density
on the film (I0) and the
between 2.0 and 4.0
intensity of light
for acceptable
transmitted through the viewing with
film (It). This ratio is the common
Film density
is measured
film
inverse of transmittance. viewers.
with a densitometer.

Image Quality

Image quality is critical for

accurate assessment of a test

specimens integrity.
Various tools called Image Quality
Indicators (IQIs) are used for this
purpose.
There are many different designs of
IQIs. Some contain artificial holes
of varying size drilled in metal
plaques while others are
manufactured from wires of
differing diameters mounted next
to one another.

Image Quality (cont.)

IQIs are typically

placed on or next
to a test specimen.
Quality typically
being determined
based on the
smallest hole or
wire diameter that
is reproduced on
the image.

Digital Radiography

One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging

is Digital Radiography.
Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are
captured using either special phosphor screens or
flat panels containing micro-electronic sensors.
No darkrooms are needed to process film, and
captured images can be digitally enhanced for
increased detail.
Images are also easily archived (stored) when in
digital form.

Digital Radiography (cont.)

There are a number of forms of
digital radiographic imaging
including:

Computed Radiography (CR)

Real-time Radiography (RTR)
Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
Computed Tomography

Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital
imaging process that uses a special
imaging plate which employs storage
phosphors.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors. The
stimulated phosphors remain in an excited state.

CR Phosphor Screen
Structure X-Rays
Protective Layer
Phosphor Layer

Phosphor Grains

Substrate

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
After exposure:

The imaging plate is read

electronically and erased for reuse in a special scanner system.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is
emitted where X-rays stimulated the
phosphor during exposure. The light is then
converted to a digital
Opticalvalue.
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube

Laser Beam
A/D
A/D
Convert
Convert
er
er

Imaging
Plate

110010010010110
110010010010110

Motor

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Digital images are typically sent to a
computer workstation where
specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Examples of computed radiographs:

Real-Time Radiography
Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term

used to describe a form of radiography

that allows electronic images to be
captured and viewed in real time.
Because image acquisition is almost
instantaneous, X-ray images can be
viewed as the part is moved and rotated.
Manipulating the part can be
advantageous for several reasons:
It may be possible to image the entire
component with one exposure.
Viewing the internal structure of the part from
different angular prospectives can provide
additional data for analysis.
Time of inspection can often be reduced.

Real-Time Radiography (cont.)

The equipment needed for an
RTR includes:
Computer with frame

X-ray
tube

grabber board and software

Image intensifier or Monitor
Sample positioning system
other real-time detector

Camera

(optional)

Real-Time Radiography (cont.)

The image intensifier is a device that

converts the radiation that passes

through the specimen into light.
It uses materials that fluoresce when
struck by radiation.
The more radiation that reaches the
input screen, the more light that is
given off.
The image is very faint on the input
screen so it is intensified onto a small
screen inside the intensifier where
the image is viewed with a camera.

Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)
A special camera

which captures the

light output of the
screen is located
near the image
intensifying
screen.
The camera is very
sensitive to a
variety of different
light intensities.

A monitor is then connected to the

camera to provide a viewable image.
If a sample positioning system is
employed, the part can be moved
around and rotated to image different
internal features of the part.

Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography

Real-time images are lighter

in areas where more X-ray
photons reach and excite
the fluorescent screen.

Film images are darker in

areas where more X-ray
photons reach and ionize
the silver molecules in
the film.

Direct Radiography
Direct radiography (DR) is

a form of real-time
radiography that uses a
special flat panel detector.

The panel works by

converting penetrating
radiation passing through
the test specimen into
minute electrical charges.

The panel contains many

micro-electronic
capacitors. The capacitors
form an electrical charge
pattern image of the
specimen.

Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) uses a realtime inspection system employing a
sample positioning system and special
software.

Computed Tomography
(cont.)
Many separate images are saved (grabbed)
and complied into 2-dimensional sections
as the sample is rotated.
2-D images are then combined into 3dimensional images.

Real-Time
Captures

Compiled 2-D
Images

Compiled 3-D
Structure

RT techniques

Factors need to be considered are:

Energy of Penetration(kV)
Exposure factors (mA x time)
Radiographic coverage, which implies
projecting every portion of the
component on the film. The total number
of exposures to be taken
The selection of the most suitable
condition of exposure

Determining Radiographic
Exposure

Satisfactory Radiograph Material and Geometric

Considerations
Knowledge of the source and film characteristics
Factors are summerised in Exposure Chart
Alternative method for exposure time
Exposure time in minutes = fd22[x/HVL] x 60/
C(RHM)1002
Where f = film factor i.e. Radiation dose in
Roentgens to produce a certain film density
( can be obtained from the chac: curve of the
film), x = thickness of the specimen in cm,
HVL= half Value Layer, d= source to film
distance (SFD) in cm, C= source strength in

Inspection Techniques
Single Wall Single Image Techniques
Both sides of the specimen are accessible
Used for plates, cylinders, shells and large
diameters pipes
Source outside and the film inside or vice
versa
Panaromic
Technique
Radiation source is
kept in the centre
of the pipe and the
film is fixed around
the weld
the
Reduceson
the
outer
surface
examination
time,of
IQIthe
can
be
placed
either
on
pipe
source side or film side
and SFD is sufficient
enough to ensure the

Inspection Techniques
Double Wall Penetration
Technique : Used when
the inside surface of the
pipe is not accessible
Double Wall Single
Image
Double Wall double
Image
Superimposing
Technique

Latitude Technique
Multiple thickness recorded on the radiograph
within the useful range of film density
High contrast film-less latitude and vice versa
Double Film Technique
Selection of films and exposure conditions, the
thicker sections will be recorded on the faster film
and the thinner sections on the slower film
Use with or without lead screens
A centre screen between the two films may also be
used

Multiwall Penetration Technique

Multiwall single
image

For double
envelope pipe of
more than 90
mm OD and the
interpretable
length is
ascertained by

Multiwall double
image

For double
envelope pipe of
90 mm OD or
less.
4 exposures are
taken for each
weld

Radiographic
Images

Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Cold lap is a condition where the weld
filler metal does not properly fuse with
the base metal or the previous weld
pass material (interpass cold lap).

Porosity is the result of gas

entrapment in the solidifying metal.

Cluster porosity is caused when flux

coated electrodes are contaminated
with moisture

Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld

Slag inclusions are

nonmetallic solid material
entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base metal.

Incomplete penetration
(IP) or lack of penetration
(LOP) occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the
joint.

Incomplete fusion is a
condition where the weld filler
metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal.

Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Internal or root undercut is an
erosion of the base metal next to
the root of the weld.

External or crown undercut is

an erosion of the base metal next
to the crown of the weld.

Inadequate weld
reinforcement is an area of a
weld where the thickness of weld
metal deposited is less than the
thickness of the base material.

Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Excess weld
reinforcement is an area
of a weld that has weld
metal added in excess of
that specified by
engineering drawings and
codes.

Tungsten inclusions.
Tungsten is a brittle and
inherently dense material
used in the electrode in
tungsten inert gas welding.

Oxide inclusions are

usually visible on the

Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when

they are propagating in a direction that produces
a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray
beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very
faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear
as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in
industrial radiography is heavily
regulated by state and federal
organizations due to potential
public and personal risks.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

There are many sources of radiation. In general, a person
receives roughly 100 mrem/year from natural sources and
roughly 100 mrem/year from manmade sources.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which
means that they have the ability to form ions in the material that is
penetrated. All living organisms are sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.)
X-rays and
gamma rays have
enough energy to
liberate electrons
from atoms and
damage the
molecular
structure of cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices
that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter

Pocket Dosimeter

Radiation Alarm

Radiation Badge

Radiation Safety (cont.)

There are three means of protection
to help reduce exposure to radiation:

Advantages of
Radiography
Technique is not limited by material type or

density.
Can inspect assembled components.
Minimum surface preparation required.
Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion,
voids, cracks, and material density changes.
Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
Provides a permanent record of the inspection.

Disadvantages of Radiography

Many safety precautions for the use of high

intensity radiation.
Many hours of technician training prior to use.
Access to both sides of sample required.
Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
Determining flaw depth is impossible without
additional angled exposures.
Expensive initial equipment cost.

General Radiographic Procedure

Another condition that must often be controlled

when producing a radiograph is called undercut.
Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness
changes are likely to suffer from undercut if
controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as
a darkening of the radiograph in the area of the
thickness transition. This results in a loss of
resolution or blurring at the transition area.
Undercut occurs due to scattering within the film.
At the edges of a part or areas where the part
transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the
radiation reaching the film is much greater than in
the thicker areas of the part. The high level of
radiation intensity reaching the film results in a
high level of scattering within the film. It should
also be noted that the faster the film speed, the
more undercut that is likely to occur. Scattering
from within the walls of the part also contributes to
undercut, but research has shown that scattering
within the film is the primary cause. Masks are
used to control undercut. Sheets of lead cut to fill
holes or surround the part and metallic shot and