Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
Penetrant Testing
particle
inspection
to
locate
surface
and
Weld
Testin
g
Discovery
Wilhelm
Rontgen
-A
professor from the age
of thirty, announced his
discovery of X-rays when
he was fifty, and then
wrote many important
papers about his further
experiments.
PENETRATION OF RADIATIONS
PENETRATION PERCENTAGE IN 1 cm
Thickness
P = (0.5 )n.
120keV
45
16.6
0.15
Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric
Unsharpness
Geometric Unsharpness
For the case when the detector
is not placed next to the sample,
such
as
when
geometric
magnification is being used, the
calculation becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
Where,
f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source
to front surface of
material/object
b = distance from the front
surface of the object to the
ABSORPTION OF RADIATIONS
X-rays and Gamma-rays will penetrate through solid
materials, but partially absorbed by the medium.
The amount of absorption of radiations will depend
upon the density and thickness of the material
The penetrated radiations will be recorded on the
screen i.e. Sensitized paper or electronic sensing
equipment etc.
Radiography
Radiography Process in which an image is produced on film
Paper Radiography is the process of permanent image formation
on the radiation sensitive paper.
Xeroradiography is the process of latent image used to produce a
permanent image.
Fluoroscope is the process in which a transient image is produced
on a fluorescent screen
Radiation Gauging is the process of monitoring the intensity of
the radiation passing through a material.
Neutron radiography is the technique of using neutrons for the
inspection purpose
Principle of Radiography
X or gamma radiations cannot be focused as visible light. The radiations
from the x or gamma rays are conical.
Some of the radiations will be absorbed by the object but some will travel
through the object and impinge on the film producing a latent image.
If the object contains a flaw which has different absorptive power from that
of the object material, the radiation energy will differ from that emerging
from adjacent region of the object.
Since there is different image density through the flaw, the flaw will be seen
as a shadow within the developed radiograph.
The developed radiograph is a two dimensional representation.
The position of the flaw within a test piece cannot be determined exactly
with a single radiograph but by taking several radiographs with the beam
directed at the object from a different angle for each exposure.
X-Ray Equipment
Equipment Consists of
1. X-Ray tube
2. Arrangement to heat the tube
filament to produce electrons
3.Arrangement to accelerate
electrons to generate high
impact energy
4.Accessories to rectify, regulate
and measure current and
voltage and
5.Provisions to measure x-ray
exposure
Scattered Radiation
When the object is in the path of X-rays or gamma rays, gives rise to
scattered radiation. This is due to
(a)Secondary radiation produced due to the interaction of the object
and the x-rays
(b) Reflection of radiation from the surrounding objects like walls and
floor
Scattered radiation has low energy and less penetration compared to
primary beam causes poor image quality.
Secondary radiation is referred to as internal scatter, forward scatter
and back scatter
The undesired effect of secondary radiation from the above sources
can be avoided by sandwiching the film between a pair of lead screens.
Secondary (Scatter)
Radiation
Filters
At x-ray energies, filters to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons emitted by
the tube before they reach the target.
The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy x-ray
photons that tend to scatter more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of
part of the x-ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of
a metal inserted in the x-ray beam).
Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the direct path of the xray beam.
Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film cassette has also
proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often
constructed of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass.
The thickness of filter materials is dependent on atomic numbers, kilovoltage
settings, and the desired filtration factor.
Gamma radiography produces relatively high energy levels at essentially
monochromatic radiation, therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is
seldom used.
Radiation Undercut
UNDERCU
TS
Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods
are available to display the final
image in industrial radiography:
Film Radiography
Real Time Radiography
Computed Tomography (CT)
Digital Radiography (DR)
Computed Radiography (CR)
Film Radiography
One of the most widely used and
oldest imaging mediums in
industrial radiography is
radiographic
film.
microscopic material called silver
Film contains
bromide.
Once exposed to radiation and developed in a
darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic
silver which forms the image.
Film selection
Factors to be considered:
Composition, shape, and size
of the part or flaw of interest
and thickness and material
density of the object being
examined and, in some cases,
its weight and location.
Type of radiation used,
whether x-rays from an x-ray
generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
Kilovoltages available with
the x-ray equipment or the
intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high
radiographic detail or quick
and economical results.
The PXB2.5D
portable X-Ray
Betatron is
designed to
produce high
energy ionising
radiation for
industrial
radiographic
non-destructive
testing. HLV for
Steel is 20mm
Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays
and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a light
proof cassette in a darkroom.
This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the
source of radiation. Film is often placed between lead screens
to intensify the effects of the radiation.
Film
Radiography
(cont.)
FILM
PROCESSING
Film processing refers to a series of
steps that produce a visible
permanent image on a radiograph.
AIMS OF PROCESSING
-To convert the latent image (invisible)
on the film into a visible image.
-To preserve the visible image so that it
is permanent and does not disappear
from the radiograph.
88
PROCESSING METHODS
A.) Manual Processing: Three methods
Time temperature method
Modified time temperature method
Visual method
B.) Automatic Processing
C.) Day Light Processing
D.) Self Developing Films
89
90
Development
It is the first stage in
processing of the
radiograph.
Amplifies latent image by
100,000,000!
The
primary
purpose:
convert the invisible latent
image into visible form.
Processing initiated at
latent image speck
Chemistry Of Developer
Development is a process of chemical reduction.
The reduction is achieved by the developer donating
electrons to silver ions in the exposed silver bromide
and iodide grains converting them to atoms of metallic
silver.
Ag+ + electron Ag
The mode of action of developer is not fully understood
but the existence of electric charge barriers around
the halide grains is thought to be involved.
Charge Barriers
UNEXPOSED GRAIN
Charge Barriers
EXPOSED GRAIN
Development
Silver atoms at
latent image
center act as
catalyst
Grain either
develops entirely
or not at all
1. Solvent
Water is the solvent commonly used in replenisher
solution.
This also controls developer activity by diluting its effects.
It has a softening effect on the gelatin, thus allowing the
developing chemicals to penetrate the emulsion and act
on the silver halides.
The presence of calcium salts in the water (hard water)
may form a chalky deposit or scum on the surface of the
film.
More serious would be contamination of the solvent with
dissolved metals like copper and iron. The presence of
only a fewer parts per million of copper could cause
chemical fogging.
In practice, such effects are extremely rare.
2. Developing Agents
These are the reducing agents, which carry out the
primary function of supplying the electrons that convert
the exposed silver halide grains to silver.
Characteristics:
1. Selectivity
2. High activity: Selectivity and activity tend to be antagonistic
properties.
An agent with high activity generally has low selectivity and vice versa.
Reaction
Involves donation of Electron by developing agent to
form metallic Silver by Silver Ion (with inactivation of
developing agent and liberation of hydrogen ions )
Alkaline
Medium
Advantages of PQ developers
1. Tolerant of
concentration.
increase
in
bromine
ion
even
in
low
3. Accelerators: PQ
developers
need
alkaline medium for their action (10 - 11.5
pH). Includes Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium
Carbonate and Borates.
This alkali is known as accelerator since its
effect is to accelerate the developing process.
5. Anti-Foggants/Restrainers
6. Preservatives
Sodium sulphite
Oxidized products of developing agents form colored material that
can stain the emulsion, sodium sulphite forms colorless soluble
products after combining with colored oxidized products of
developing agents (sulfonates).
It acts as a preservative by preventing oxidation of hydroquinone by
removing dissolved oxygen in the solution and at the interface.
oxidation
Sodium Sulphite
Coloured product
(stain the emulsion)
7. Hardeners:
Powerful organic hardeners such as gluteraldehyde
which prevent the excessive swelling of gelatin in the
emulsion when it absorbs water during development.
If the emulsion is over hardened the speed with which the
developing agents penetrate the silver halide grains is
reduced.
RINSING
A continuous, gentle rinsing for 30 sec in water is
necessary after developing
i)To dilute the developer and slowing the
development process
ii)To remove alkali activator.
108
FIXING
It has 4 major functions:
1. To stop further development
Making it acidic
Solvent
Fixing agent
Acid
Hardener
Buffer
Preservative
Anti-sludging agent
1. Solvent
Water
2. Fixing Agent
2 agents:
Cyanides
Poisonous
Not generally used.
3. Acid:
Prevents dichoric fog by inhibiting developing
agents.
Provides a suitable environment for the
hardening agents in the fixer.
Acetic acid is used usually at a pH of 4-4.5.
4. Hardener:
Reduces drying time and prevents physical
damage.
Aluminium chloride and aluminium sulfate (or
Chromium compounds) are used commonly.
5. Buffer:
Prevents sulphurization.
Neutralizes the developer
Optimizes hardener activity
6. Preservative:
Retards decomposition of thiosulphates
Sodium sulphate is commonly used
7. Antisludging agent:
Boric acid is commonly used and this prevents
sludging of insoluble aluminium compounds in
the hardener.
WASHING
Necessary to thoroughly
remove all the excess
chemicals from the
emulsion.
DRYING
- Should be air dried at
room temperature in a
115
116
Close and lock the dark room turn off the overhead
white light and turn on the safelight.
Remove the exposed film from its lightproof packet,
using only safe light illumination.
Hold the film only from their edges.
Clip the bare film to the hanger clip( 1 film to a
single clip ).
Based on the temperature of developer solution and
the instruction of manufacture, set the timer. A timetemperature chart is used to determine the time.
117
118
119
Immerse the film hangers with films in fixer solution and gently agitate
it for 5 seconds every 30 seconds. This eliminates air bubbles and
brings fresh fixer in touch with emulsion.
When the timer goes off uncover the processing tank and remove the
films from the fixer and drain excess of fixer into the wash bath.
The films are then placed in running water for atleast 10 min.
Further surface moisture is removed by gently shaking off the excess
water form the film and the hanger.
Dry the film in circulating, moderately warm air.
If a heated drying cabinet is used the temperature should not exceed
1200 F.
Remove the dry radiographs from the film hangers and use a view box
to examine the radiographs and place then in an envelope labeled with
patients name and date of exposure.
120
Advantage :
Temperature need not be maintained at particular level
and at the same time consistent image quality can be
gained.
Disadvantage :
For every brand of developer separate time
temperature chart should be prepared.
121
Visual method :
In this method the exposed x-ray film is
immersed in developing solution. For about 10
sec and then removed and observed in the safe
light.
If adequate image have been obtained then it is
put for rinsing, other wise re-inserted in the
developing solution till adequate image is
obtained.
Disadvantage : This method is highly objective in
nature and doesnt give consistent quality.
122
LOCATION
Centrally located
Serviced by hatches
from the adjacent
imaging room
Away from damp or
hot areas
Accessible in terms of
power and water
supply
Adjoining viewing
room
SIZE
Minimum floor area of 10 sq meter
Ceiling height of 2.5 - 3 meter
Size may be reduced depending upon the department
needs
RADIATION PROTECTION
Walls adjacent to the radiographic room should be
shielded with correct thickness of the lead all the way
to the ceiling
In the interests of both darkroom staff and film material
alike
1.6 mm lead is mostly used
FLOORS
Non-porous flooring
Non-slip flooring
Chemical resistant
Stain proof
Durable & easy to
maintain
Light coloured (low-light
working conditions)
Asphalt tiles
Porcelain tiles
Clay tiles
WALLS/CEILING
Light in colour to reflect as much light as possible onto
the working surface
Easy to wipe or clean
Covered with chemical resistant materials
Special paints, varnish, ceramic or plastic wall
TYPE OF ENTRANCE
SINGLE DOOR SYSTEM
DOUBLE DOOR SYSTEM
MAZE TYPE ENTRANCE
LABYRINTH
ROTATING DOOR SYSTEM
LABYRINTH ENTRANCE
Fire Safety
Ideally, all darkrooms should be provided with an
alternative exit, which should be indicated clearly and
left unobstructed at all times
WHITE LIGHTING
For inspection & maintenance of cassettes &
screens
Cleaning of work surfaces
Servicing of equipment
Sited close to the ceiling
Moderate in intensity
(60w tungsten, 30w fluorescent )
SAFE LIGHTING
DIRECT SAFE LIGHTING:
Light from safe lamp
directly falls onto the work
surface
Eg. Beehive safelamp
FILM PROCESSING
SOLUTIONS
Obtained in following forms :
i)
Powder
ii)
To Maintain Freshness:
i)Solutions must be replenished daily.
ii)Must be changed after every 3-4weeks.
Fixer
141
DEVELOPING SOLUTION:
i)
Developer
ii) Preservative
iii) Accelerator
iv) Restainer
FIXER SOLUTION:
v) Fixing agent
vi) Preservative
vii) Acidifier
viii)Hardening agent
142
DEVELOPING SOLUTION
I.) DEVELOPER
- Developing solution convert the exposed silver halide
crystals into black metallic silver grains.
- This process begins at latent image sites.
- At latent image site, electrons from the developing agents
are conducted into the silver halide crystals and reduces
the constitute silver ion to solid grains of metallic silver.
- Unexposed silver halide crystals, are unaffected during
the time of reduction of exposed crystals into metallic
silver.
143
Hydroquinone
II.)
ACTIVATOR
- Alkaline in nature
- Developing agents are active only at alkaline PH
values( high PH) .
- Achieved by adding alkali compounds
a.) Sodium or potassium hydroxide
b.) Buffer-sodium bicarbonate
- This causes the gelatin to swell so that developing
agents easily diffuse with emulsion.
145
III) PRESERVATIVE
- Sodium sulfite (antioxiant)
- Prevents oxidation of developing agents
- Preservative is added with brown
oxidized developer. This makes the
solution colourless.
146
IV) RESTAINER
- Potassium bromide and Benzatriazole.
- Prevents the developement of unexposed silver halide
crystals
- It depresses the reduction of both exposed and
unexposed silver halide crystals but are more effective
in reduction of unexposed silver halide crystals.
DEVELOPER REPLENISHER
-During normal course of film processing:
i)Phenidone and hydroquinone are consumed from solution.
ii)Bromide ions and byproducts are released into the solution
iii)Developer solution gets inactivated by exposure of oxygen.
-These actions produces a seasoned solution.
-Hence developer sol must be replenished daily to prolong the
life of seasoned solution
-Recommended amout-8 ounces/gallon of developer solution.
148
FIXING SOLUTION
I)CLEARING AGENT
- Ammonium thiosulfate
- Dissolves and removes the unexposed silver halide grains.
- Ammonium thiosulfate forms a stable, water soluble
complexes with silver ions (silver thiosulfate complex),
which then diffuses from the emulsion.
- Thiosulfate does not have a rapid effect on the metallic
silver grains in the film emulsion
- But excessive fixation results in loss of film density,
because the grains of silver slowly dissolve in the acetic
acid of fixing solution.
149
II.) ACIDIFIER
-Contains an acetic acid buffer system (PH 4-4.5)
-This acidic PH required for
a.) good diffusion of thiosulfate into the emulsion
b.) silver thiosulfate complex out of the emulsion.
- Inactivate any carryover developing agents in the film
emulsion, hence blocks the further development of any
unexposed crystals.
150
III.) PRESERVATIVE
-Sodium sulfite
-Prevents oxidation of clearing agents as they are
unstable in the acidic environment of fixing solution.
IV.) HARDNER
- Aluminium sulfate
- This complexes with gelatin and hardens the gelatin during
fixing process.
-
152
PROCESSING ROOM
REQUIREMENTS
A well planned dark room makes the processing easier, which should be of
atleast 4 5 feet (1.2 1.5 m ).
Characteristics of darkroom :
i) Convenient location and adequate size
ii) Ample working space with adequate storage
iii) Lighting
iv) Temperature and humidity controlled
v) Darkroom plumbing
vi) Miscellaneous
153
WORKING SPACE
-Adequate counter area where films can be unwrapped.
-A clean, organized work area is essential which should be
free of processing chemicals, water, dust, and debris.
STORAGE SPACE
154
LIGHTING
-The room must be completely dark and must exclude all visible
light.
-Any leaks of white light in the darkroom causes film fog.
Two types of lighting are essential in darkroom.
i)Room lighting (white illumination) and
ii)Safe lighting.
Room lighting :Incandescent room lighting is required to perform
task such as cleaning, stocking materials and mixing chemicals,
this is not associated with the act of processing films.
Safe lighting :
- Special kind of lighting of relatively long wavelength and low
intensity illumination that does not rapidly affect open film but
permits one to see well enough to work in the area.
- To minimize the fogging effect of prolonged exposure, the safe light
should have a 15 W bulb and a safe light filter(red GBX-2 filter ).
155
156
DARKROOM PLUMBING
Must include both hot and cold running water along with mixing
valves
to adjust the water temperature in the processing tanks with utility
sink.
MISCELLANEOUS REQUIREMENTS:
i)Wastebasket for disposal of all film wrappings.
ii)x-ray view box used to examine radiographs.
157
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
158
-Insert each unwrapped film into the film feed slot of the
processor, one at a time.
-Allow at-least 10 sec between the insertion of each film.
-Do not turned the films sideways or insert too quickly,
they will overlap; overlapped films results in non
diagnostic radiographs.
-After films are inserted, allow 4-6 min for automated
processing to occur.
-Retrieve the processed radiographs from the film
recovery slot on the outside of the automatic
processor.
159
ADVANTAGES
Time saving .
Constant film quality is achieved, due to fixed processing
cycles.
Need for dark room is eliminated.
Less floor space is required.
Chemicals can be replenished automatically by machine.
Large number of films can be processed continuously.
160
DISADVANTAGES
Equipment is relatively expensive.
Strict maintenance and regular change is
required, dirty rollers produce marked
films.
Films may get lost in the tank
161
162
163
Advantages :
No dark room or processing facilities are needed.
Time saving.
Disadvantages :
Poor over all image quality.
Image detoriates rapidly over time.
No lead foil inside the film hence less flexible and
can be easily bent .
These films are difficult to use in position holders.
Relatively expensive
164
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Manual Processing tanks
Timer
Thermometer
Film hangers
Miscellaneous equipments
165
INSERT TANKS:
-2 removable 1-gallon ( 3.8 L) insert tanks hold the developer and fixer
solutions, placed in master tank.
-Developer solution is placed on the left and fixer solution placed on
right in the master tank.
-Water in master tank seperates the two insert tanks.
MASTER TANK:
-Filled with circulating water.
-An overflow pipe is used to control the water level in the master tank.
166
167
TIMER:
- A timer is use to signal the radiographer
that the films must be removed from the
current processing solution.
- Development time depends on the
temperature of the developer solution.
168
THERMOMETER
-Use to determine the temperature of developer solution;
optimum temp is 68 degree F, below 60 degree F
chemical works too slowely, results in under
development; above 80 F chemical works too rapidly,
will cause film fog.
-Floating thermometer or one that is clipped to the side of
the developer tank may be used.
-Temperature of developer sol, determine the
development time.
169
FILM HANGERS
-Also known as processing hangers.
-Device equipped with clips used to hold films during processing.
-Made up of stainless steel.
-Available in various sizes and can hold upto 20 intraoral films.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENTS
i)
170
171
DEVELOPER COMPARTMENT:
-Holds the developer solution.
-Developing solution is Specially formulated for automatic processor and
different from developing solution used in manual processing.
-A hardening chemical glutaraldehyde is added to the conventional
manual processing developing solution, to prevent the emulsion from
softening and sticking to the solution.
-Sulfate compounds are also added to the manual processing developer,
to minimize the swelling of the emulsion, so that the films can be
transported by the roller uniformly.
-Because the total processing time is reduced in automatic processing,
the chemical concentration and temperature of the developing
solutions must be increased.
172
FIXING COMPARTMENT:
-Holds fixer solution
-Film directly transfer to fixer from developer without rinsing
step.
-In fixer solution, the film is rapidly fixed and then hardened.
-Fixing solution is Specially formulated for automatic processor
and different from fixing solution used in manual processing.
-Fixing solution for automatic processor is highly concentrated
chemical solution, that contains additional hardening agents.
173
WATER COMPARTMENT:
Holds circulating water, used to wash the films after
fixation.
DRYING CHAMBERS:
Holds heated air, used to dry wet film.
FILM RECOVERY SLOT:
Opening on the outside of the processor housing, where
the dry, processed radiograph emerges from the
automatic processor.
174
175
176
MOUNTING RADIOGRAPHS
Radiographs must be preserved and maintained
in the most satisfactory and useful condition.
Periapical, interproximal, and occlusal films are
best handled and stored in a film mount.
Mounts are made of plastic or cardboard and
may have a clear plastic window that covers and
protects the film.
However, the window may have scratches or
imperfections that interfere with radiographic
interpretation
177
179
180
Radiographic
Image Quality
Subject contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of
radiation intensities transmitted
through different areas of the
component being evaluated
dependent on:
the absorption differences in the
component
the wavelength of the primary
radiation
intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to
scattering
Subject contrast
As contrast sensitivity increases, the
latitude of the radiograph decreases.
Radiographic latitude refers to the
range of material thickness that can be
imaged.
more areas of different thicknesses will be
visible in the image.
Film contrast
Film contrast:
density differences that result due to:
Film contrast
A typical film characteristic curve,
which shows how a film responds
to different amounts of radiation
exposure,is shown to the right.
From the shape of the curves, it
can be seen that when the film has
not seen many photon interactions
(which will result in a low film
density) the slope of the curve is
low.
In this region of the curve, it takes
a large change in exposure to
produce a small change in film
density. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the film is relatively low.
It can be seen that changing the
log of the relative exposure from
0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film
density from 0.20 to about 0.30.
However, at film densities above
2.0, the slope of the characteristic
curve for most films is at its
maximum.
Radiographic Density
Technically it should be
called "transmitted
density" when associated
with transparent-base film
since it is a measure of
the light transmitted
through the film.
Industrial codes and
Radiographic density is
standards typically
the logarithm of two
require a radiograph
measurements: the
intensity of light incident to have a density
on the film (I0) and the
between 2.0 and 4.0
intensity of light
for acceptable
transmitted through the viewing with
film (It). This ratio is the common
Film density
is measured
film
inverse of transmittance. viewers.
with a densitometer.
Image Quality
placed on or next
to a test specimen.
Quality typically
being determined
based on the
smallest hole or
wire diameter that
is reproduced on
the image.
Digital Radiography
is Digital Radiography.
Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are
captured using either special phosphor screens or
flat panels containing micro-electronic sensors.
No darkrooms are needed to process film, and
captured images can be digitally enhanced for
increased detail.
Images are also easily archived (stored) when in
digital form.
Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital
imaging process that uses a special
imaging plate which employs storage
phosphors.
Computed Radiography
(cont.)
X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors. The
stimulated phosphors remain in an excited state.
CR Phosphor Screen
Structure X-Rays
Protective Layer
Phosphor Layer
Phosphor Grains
Substrate
Computed Radiography
(cont.)
After exposure:
Computed Radiography
(cont.)
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is
emitted where X-rays stimulated the
phosphor during exposure. The light is then
converted to a digital
Opticalvalue.
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube
Laser Beam
A/D
A/D
Convert
Convert
er
er
Imaging
Plate
110010010010110
110010010010110
Motor
Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Digital images are typically sent to a
computer workstation where
specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.
Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Examples of computed radiographs:
Real-Time Radiography
Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term
X-ray
tube
Camera
(optional)
Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)
A special camera
Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography
Direct Radiography
Direct radiography (DR) is
a form of real-time
radiography that uses a
special flat panel detector.
converting penetrating
radiation passing through
the test specimen into
minute electrical charges.
micro-electronic
capacitors. The capacitors
form an electrical charge
pattern image of the
specimen.
Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) uses a realtime inspection system employing a
sample positioning system and special
software.
Computed Tomography
(cont.)
Many separate images are saved (grabbed)
and complied into 2-dimensional sections
as the sample is rotated.
2-D images are then combined into 3dimensional images.
Real-Time
Captures
Compiled 2-D
Images
Compiled 3-D
Structure
RT techniques
Energy of Penetration(kV)
Exposure factors (mA x time)
Radiographic coverage, which implies
projecting every portion of the
component on the film. The total number
of exposures to be taken
The selection of the most suitable
condition of exposure
Determining Radiographic
Exposure
Inspection Techniques
Single Wall Single Image Techniques
Both sides of the specimen are accessible
Used for plates, cylinders, shells and large
diameters pipes
Source outside and the film inside or vice
versa
Panaromic
Technique
Radiation source is
kept in the centre
of the pipe and the
film is fixed around
the weld
the
Reduceson
the
outer
surface
examination
time,of
IQIthe
can
be
placed
either
on
pipe
source side or film side
and SFD is sufficient
enough to ensure the
Inspection Techniques
Double Wall Penetration
Technique : Used when
the inside surface of the
pipe is not accessible
Double Wall Single
Image
Double Wall double
Image
Superimposing
Technique
Latitude Technique
Multiple thickness recorded on the radiograph
within the useful range of film density
High contrast film-less latitude and vice versa
Double Film Technique
Selection of films and exposure conditions, the
thicker sections will be recorded on the faster film
and the thinner sections on the slower film
Use with or without lead screens
A centre screen between the two films may also be
used
For double
envelope pipe of
more than 90
mm OD and the
interpretable
length is
ascertained by
Multiwall double
image
For double
envelope pipe of
90 mm OD or
less.
4 exposures are
taken for each
weld
Radiographic
Images
Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Cold lap is a condition where the weld
filler metal does not properly fuse with
the base metal or the previous weld
pass material (interpass cold lap).
Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Incomplete penetration
(IP) or lack of penetration
(LOP) occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the
joint.
Incomplete fusion is a
condition where the weld filler
metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal.
Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Internal or root undercut is an
erosion of the base metal next to
the root of the weld.
Inadequate weld
reinforcement is an area of a
weld where the thickness of weld
metal deposited is less than the
thickness of the base material.
Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Excess weld
reinforcement is an area
of a weld that has weld
metal added in excess of
that specified by
engineering drawings and
codes.
Tungsten inclusions.
Tungsten is a brittle and
inherently dense material
used in the electrode in
tungsten inert gas welding.
Radiograph Interpretations
-Weld
Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in
industrial radiography is heavily
regulated by state and federal
organizations due to potential
public and personal risks.
Survey Meter
Pocket Dosimeter
Radiation Alarm
Radiation Badge
Advantages of
Radiography
Technique is not limited by material type or
density.
Can inspect assembled components.
Minimum surface preparation required.
Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion,
voids, cracks, and material density changes.
Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography
intensity radiation.
Many hours of technician training prior to use.
Access to both sides of sample required.
Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
Determining flaw depth is impossible without
additional angled exposures.
Expensive initial equipment cost.