Ecological Principals

CSIR-UGC-NET (LS)

By
Ahmad Masood Khan
Department of Wildlife Sciences
Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh

Syllabus Overview
1. The Environment
2. Habitat and Niche
3. Population Ecology
4. Species Interactions
5. Community Ecology
6. Ecological Succession
7. Ecosystem Ecology
8. Biogeography
9. Applied Ecology
10.Conservation Biology

1. The Environment
Physical environment
Biotic environment
Biotic and abiotic interactions

Definition:
Environ (French) = to surround.
It refers to an aggregate of all conditions that
affect the existence, growth and welfare of an
organism or a group of organisms.
Sum total of all social, economical, biological,
physical, and chemical factors which
constitute the surroundings of humans.

3 Layers
1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere
3. Hydrosphere

Biosphere: The region of the surface and atmosphere of

the earth occupied by living organisms
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1. THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%),
oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%) that
surrounds Earth.
It is divided into five layers. Most of the
weather and clouds are found in the first layer.

Troposphere
Closest to the Earth's surface
Extends up to 6-20 km above the Earth's surface
Wider at the equator than at the poles
Temperature decreases with altitude (17 to -51C)
Tropopause
Stratosphere
About 35 km deep
From about 15 to 50 km above the Earth's surface
Warmer at the top than the bottom- due to ozone
The Ozone Layer: shields the earth from harmful
UV rays of the sun
Stratopause
8

Mesosphere
Extends from 50 to 80 km above the Earth's surface
Cold layer -temperature generally decreases with
increasing altitude
Mesopause
Thermosphere (upper atmosphere)
690 km above the earth
Temperature increases with altitude and reaches
approx. 2000 C
Thermopause

Exosphere
Outermost layer of the atmosphere
Extends from thermopause to 10,000 km above
the earth
Satellites

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2. THE LITHOSPHERE

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The Four Layers

The Earth is composed of four different layers.
The crust is the layer that we live on, and it is
the most widely studied and understood.
The mantle is much hotter and has the ability to
flow.
The outer core and inner core are even hotter.

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13

The Crust
The Earth's Crust is like
the skin of an apple.
It is very thin in comparison
to the other three layers.
The crust is only about 3-5
miles (8 kilometers) thick
under the oceans (oceanic
crust) and about 25 miles
(32 kilometers) thick under
the continents (continental
crust).
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The Mantle
The Mantle is the
largest layer of the
Earth.
The middle mantle is
composed of very hot
dense rock that flows
like asphalt under a
heavy weight.
The movement of the
middle mantle
(asthenosphere) is
the reason that the
crustal plates of the
Earth move.
15

The Outer Core

The core of the
Earth is like a ball of
very hot metals.
The outer core is
so hot that the
metals in it are all in
the liquid state.
The outer core is
composed of the
melted metals of
nickel and iron.
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The Inner Core

The inner core of the
Earth has
temperatures and
pressures so great
that the metals are
squeezed together
and are not able to
move about like a
liquid, but are forced
to vibrate in place like
a solid.
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3. Hydrosphere
Part of the earth that contains water.

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The Structure of Hydrosphere

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Understanding Where Water is LocatedOceans and Ice

What bodies of water hold the largest amount
of water?
Oceans the largest bodies of water on
Earth (contain salt water only)
Examples of oceans:
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Arctic Ocean
Southern Ocean
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 What features house

water as ice?
Icebergs: a large
piece of
freshwater ice
floating in open
waters.

21

 What features house

water as ice?
Glaciers: any large
mass of ice that
moves slowly over
land

22

Fresh Water LocationsSurface Water

What is the difference between a watershed
and a river basin?
Both terms describe land that drains into a
river, stream or lake.
River Basin: the term used to describe an
area that drains into a large river.
Watershed: the term used to describe an
area that drains into a smaller river or
stream.
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Fresh Water LocationsRiver Basins and

Watersheds

Larger river basins are made up of many

interconnected watersheds
Example: The Ganga Basin is made of many small
watersheds.

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 The water in a watershed runs to the lowest

pointa river, stream, lake, or ocean

25

Fresh Water LocationsRivers, Streams,

and Lakes
What is a river?
A large channel
along which water
is continually
flowing down a
slopemade of
many streams that
come together.

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Fresh Water LocationsRivers, Streams,

and Lakes
What is a stream?
A small channel
along which water
is continually
flowing down a
slopemade of
small gullies.

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Fresh Water LocationsRivers,

Streams, and Lakes
What is a lake?
A body of water
of considerable
size contained
on a body of
land.

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Fresh Water Locations-Groundwater

What is
groundwater?
The water found
in cracks and
pores in sand,
gravel and rocks
below the
earths surface.

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Aquifer
What is aquifer?
is a rock layer
that stores
water and
allows water to
flow through it.

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Other Surface Waters

What is a
wetland?
An area where
the water table
is at, near or
above the land
surface long
enough during
the year to
support adapted
plant growth.
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Other Surface Waters

What are the types of wetlands?
Swamps, bogs, and marshes
Swamp: a wetland dominated by
trees
Bogs: a wetland dominated by peat
moss
Marshes: a wetland dominated by
grasses

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Multidimensional Nature of the Environment

Sewage
etc.
Housing

Food
Housing

Environment

Research
Recreation

Clothes

Industry

Medicine

Respiration
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Scope of environmental studies

1)Ecosystem structure and function:
Study of the process that link the living or
biotic components to the non-living or
abiotic components.

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2) Natural resources management

Natural resources such as forest
contribute towards maintaining a
balance in the environment.
Therefore, managing and maintenance
of forest and wildlife is an important
task under natural resource
management.
3) Environmental pollution control
With the knowledge of environment
sciences, one can look for methods to
control pollution and mange waste
effectively

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4) Environmental management
Several independent environmental
consultants working with central and
state pollution control boards.
Offer advice related to environmental
problems and their solutions. They also
direct the concerned industry to
lawyers specialized in the field of
environmental laws.
The consultants working with
government pollution control boards
are involved in policy making, pollution
control, and maintenance of ecological
balance.

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5) Industry
Most industries have a separate
environmental research and
developmental section which governs
the impact that their industry has on
the environment.
Rapid industrialization is increasingly
degrading the environment.
To combat this menace, there is a
growing trend towards manufacture of
green goods and products.

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6) Research and development

Various universities and governmental
organizations offer avenues for research in
order to develop theories or methods of
monitoring and controlling environmental
pollution.
MoEF and climate change
ZSI
BSI
WII
FSI
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7) Environmentalists
Environmentalists analyze the causes and
effects of environmental issues locally and
help in devising ways to combat the
problems.
They also works towards gathering public
opinion on environmental issues.
8) Environmental Journalism
There is an increasing demand for people
who can report on environmental issues to
generated awareness among people.
Environmental journalism is an emerging
field which helps in bringing environmental39

9) Green advocacy
With the increase in the implementation of
environmental related laws and acts, the needs
is felts to have environmental lawyers who can
deal with the cases related to water and air
pollution, biodiversity protection, etc.
10) Green marketing
Green marketing refers to the process of
selling environmentally friendly products
and/or services.
There is a growing interest among the
consumers all over the world regarding the
protection of environment.
Therefor, in the years to come, the demand 40for

Importance of environmental studies

Environmental studies provides the skills
necessary to obtain solutions to the
environmental problems our planet is facing
today.
Moreover , it encourages the development of
scientific principles and the application of
these principles to solve environmental
problems.
It gives information regarding the changes
that take place due to anthropogenic factors
and helps gain skills of analyzing various
environmental system and the effect of
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ECOSYSTEM
ECOS: Pertaining to the environment.
SYSTEM: A set of component working
independently to achieve a common goal.
It is a major structural and functional unit of
ecology.
Coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist
Arthur Tansley.
Ecosystem can be defined as the interactions
among biotic and abiotic components of the
environment.
The function of ecosystem is energy flow and
material cycles within and outside the
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Components
of
ecosystem

Biotic

Abiotic
Climatic
(water,
temperature,
light, wind
etc.)

Edaphic
(soil, pH,
Minerals
etc.)

Producers
(Autotrophs)

Consumers
(Primary,Se
condary,Tert
iary etc.)

Decomposers
(bacteria,
fungi etc.)

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Abiotic components
Non living component of an Ecosystem.
It is divided into Climatic as well as Edaphic
components.
Climatic components
WATER
Water is one of the prime elements responsible
for life on earth.
Rain is the means by which fresh water is
created.
Water circulates through the land transporting,
dissolving, replenishing nutrients and organic
matter, while carrying away waste material.
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In the body, it regulates the activities of fluids,

LIGHT

The primary and largest source of energy for an

ecosystem is the sun.
Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and
the length of the light period play an important part in
an ecosystem.
Photosynthesis

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46

TEMPERATURE

The distribution of plants and animals is

greatly influenced by temperature.
The plants normally germinate in the spring
or summer.
Flowering, fruiting etc. is mostly triggered by
the temperature.
Many species have developed adaptations
such migration, hibernation etc. to deal with
temperature fluctuations in the environment.

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WIND

Winds or air currents arise on a world-wide

scale as a result of a complex interaction
between hot air expanding and rising
(convection) in the mid latitudes.
Winds carry water vapour which may
condense and fall in the form of rain, snow or
hail.
Wind plays a role in pollination and seed
dispersal of some plants, as well as the
dispersal of some insects.
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EDAPHIC COMPONENTS
SOIL

Soil performs four important functions:

It is a medium for plant growth.
It is a means of water storage, supply
and purification.
It is a modifier of Earth's atmosphere.
It is a habitat for organisms; all of
which, in turn, modify the soil.
Soil can differ in one or more properties such as in
their
texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency.
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pH
Soil pH is important because it influences several soil
factors affecting plant growth, such as
Soil bacteria
Nutrient leaching
Nutrient availability
Toxic elements
Soil structure.
Most microorganisms have an optimum pH range for
survival and function. For bacteria its 7 whereas for Fungi
its 5.
Nutrient leaching leads to soil acidification.
Nutrient availability directly affects the absorption and
reactivity of soil substrates.
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MINERALS
Building blocks of soil.
Minerals play a vital role in soil fertility since they serve as
potential sites for nutrient storage and hold and retain
differing amounts of nutrients.
Minerals are found in residual rocks, glacial deposits,loess
deposits,alluvial and marine deposits, organic deposits.
Depending on the mode of formation, types of minerals
are:
Primary: Minerals that crystallize from cooling magma
are called primary minerals. E.g. quartz, feldspar, mica
Secondary: Minerals that crystallize during the
weathering of primary minerals are called secondary
minerals E.g. Kaolinite, gypsum, calcite
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TOPOGRAPHY

Topographyis the surface features of land which can

be natural and/or artificial.

Island Topography
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Biotic components
Biotic components of an ecosystem
includes:
Producers
Consumers
Decomposers

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 A feeding relationship between the biotic

components food chain obtain energy
Each level of food chain trophic level
Grass grasshopper frog snake
(producer) (1o)
(2o)
(3o)
1st trophic level
trophic level

2nd trophic level

3rd trophic level

4th

Several food chain interact to form a network

food web energy transferred from 1
trophic to another trophic level

Energy from
90% energy
sunlight
is lost
Green plants

90% energy

Producer (900 is
kJ)lost

Grasshopper
1o (90 kJ)

90% energy
is lost

Bird
2o (9 kJ)

Eagle
3o (0.9 kJ)

90% energy
is lost

Producers
The producers are called autotrophs.
Autotrophs are of two main types:
1. Photosynthetic forms are Green plants, Photosynthetic
bacteria (microorganisms that use the sun as a source of
energy e.g. Purple bacteria).
2. Chemosynthetic forms are chemosynthetic bacteria (they
synthesize organic compounds using energy derived from
the oxidation of organic or inorganic materials without the
aid of light). e.g. Sulphur-oxidizing proteobacteria,
methanogenicarchaea etc.
On land, photosynthesis is carried out by plants.
In the sea, the main photosynthetic organisms are the
Microscopic Algae, Phytoplanktons, Diatoms and Flagellates.
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59

Consumers
The organisms that are unable to synthesise
their own food and obtain them by feeding
on other organisms and plants.
The decomposers also fit in this definition.
Based on the nature of food they consume,
they are classified into:
1. Herbivores, 2. Carnivores 3. Omnivore.
On the basis of hierarchy of feeding:
1. Primary consumer 2. Secondary
consumer 3.Tertiary consumer
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Primary consumer
The animals that feed on plant material.
Primary consumers can be grazers or browsers.

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Secondary consumer
Animals which feed on primary consumers
are termed as secondary consumers.
These organisms are therefore Carnivorous.

Indian Thread Fish

Variable Bush Frog

Indian Rat Snake

Hawksbill Sea Turtle

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Tertiary consumer
The animals that feed on primary as well as
secondary consumers.
Top carnivores are less in number.
Example: Birds of prey, Cat family etc.

White- rumped Vulture

Lion

MuggerCrocodile
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Decomposers

Decomposers feed on dead material.

1. Macro feeders (Detritivores)
2. Micro feeders (Decomposers)
Detritivores are has the initial role of breaking up
large bodies into smaller particles before getting it
absorbed as a food e.g. Earthworms, Millipeds,
Slugs, Dung Flies, Sea Cucumber.
Decomposers obtain energy by further converting
organic compounds into inorganic form e.g. Fungi,
Algae, Bacteria.

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MultipleChoiceQuestions
1.WhatistheanimalsymbolofW.W.F
(WorldWildlifeFund)?
a)RedPanda
b)GiantPanda
c)Tiger
d)Kangaroo

b)GiantPanda

MultipleChoiceQuestions
2. Themostimportanthuman
activity,leadingtothe
extinctionofwildlife,is?
a)Pollutionofwildlife
b)Huntingforvaluablewildlife
products
c)Introductionofalienspecies
d)Alternationanddestructionofthenatural
habitats

d)Alternationanddestructionofthe
naturalhabitats

MultipleChoiceQuestions
3.Ifweuncoverhalfoftheforest,coveri
ngoftheearth,what
crisiswillbeproducedatmostandatfir
st?
a)Somespecieswillbeextincted
b)Populationandecologicalimbalance
willriseupc)Energycrisiswilloccur
d)Resthalfforestswillmaintainthisimb
alance

a)Somespecieswillbeexti
ncted

MultipleChoiceQuestions
4. WhenistheWorldWildlifeweek?
a)FirstweekofSeptember
b)LastweekofSeptember
c)FirstweekofOctober
d)LastweekofOctober

c)FirstweekofOctober

MultipleChoiceQuestions
5. RedDataBookProvidesdataon
a)Redfloweredplants
b)Redcoloredfishes
c)Listsofplantsandanimals
d)Endangeredplantsandanimals

d)Endangeredplantsanda
nimals

MultipleChoiceQuestions
6.Wildlifeiscontinuouslydecreasing
.Whatisthemain reasonofthis?
a)Predation
b)Cuttingdownofforest
c)Destructionofhabitat
d)Hunting

c)Destructionofhabitat

MultipleChoiceQuestions
7.Whatisthemajorcauseofdiminishi
ngwildlifenumber?
a)Fellingoftrees
b)Cannibalism
c)Habitatdestruction
d)Paucityofdrinkingwater

c)Habitatdestruction

MultipleChoiceQuestions
8.Viablematerialofendangeredspeci
escanbepreservedby
a)Genebank
b)Genelibrary
c)Genepool
d)Herbarium

a)Genebank

MultipleChoiceQuestions
9.Whichgroupofvertebratescomprisest
hehighestnumber
ofendangeredspecies?
a)Mammals
b)Fishes
c)Birds
d)Reptiles

a)Mammals

MultipleChoiceQuestions
10.Whichofthefollowingismainlyres
ponsibleforthe extinctionofwildlife?
a)Pollutionofairandwater
b)Huntingforflesh
c)DestructionofHabitats
d)Allofthese

d)Allofthese

Thanks

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