OCEAN/ESS 410

13. Faulting and Earthquake

Focal Mechanisms
William Wilcock

Lecture/Lab Learning Goals

Know the different styles of faulting and how to
specify the orientation and slip direction of a fault.
Understand why the pattern of P-wave first motions
divides into 2 compressional and 2 dilitational
quadrants.
Understand how we represent the first motion pattern
graphically with a beach-ball and how to read beachball plots in terms of the two possible fault planes
(more practice in the LAB).
Be able to identify polarities and determine a focal
mechanism solution - LAB

Normal Fault Extension

Reverse Fault or
Thrust Fault Compression

Strike-Slip Fault Horizontal Shear

Strike,
Dip and
Rake
Strike - Direction of line
formed by intersection of
fault plane and horizontal
plane (defined so dip is to
right of strike)
Dip - downward inclination
of fault plane relative to
horizontal
Rake - Direction of motion
on fault measured
anticlockwise on fault plane
from strike direction

Two options for defining

unambiguous strike & dip directions
1. Define Strike so that fault dips to your right
when you are facing the direction of the
strike (e.g., strike = 220; dip = 55)
2. State the dip direction (strike = 040; dip =
55 to the NW)
You can use either option but the second is
probably easiest

Body Waves: P-waves

Primary Wave: P wave is a compressional (or longitudinal) wave in

which rock (particles) vibrates back and forth parallel to the direction of
wave propagation. P-waves are the first arriving wave and have high
frequencies but their amplitude tends not to be very large

P-wave first motions focal mechanisms

P-waves will radiate in all directions away from a fault. In some directions the
first motion of the P-waves will initially be compressional (C) (the earthquake
pushes the ground in the direction of motion). In other directions the Pwaves will be dilitational (D) (the earthquake pulls the ground away from the
direction of wave motion. The dilitational and compressional first motions are
divided into quadrants. Seismologist can use this pattern of first motions to
infer the orientation of the fault.
= Earthquake

Fa
ul
t

Pl

an
e

Pl
an
e

first motion

= Seismic wave

Au
xi
lia
ry

Dilatational
(downward)

Compressional
(upward) first
motion

Au
xil
ia

ry

Pl

D
an
e

Fa
ul
tP
la
ne

tP
la
ne

Au
xi
lia
ry

Fa
ul

Pl
an
e

Two orthogonal fault planes known as focal planes

will fit the first motions

C
D

Fault Plane Solutions obtained from P wave first motions

will have this ambiguity. To determine the true fault plane
Use geological understanding to discriminate
Look at aftershocks. They will likely fall on the fault plane
Analyze the full seismic waveform

Focal Sphere
An small imaginary sphere surrounding the
location where the earthquake first ruptures.
The seismic waves (or rays) traveling from the
earthquake to any station will intersect the focal
sphere.
The regions of dilitational and compressional
motions will divide the focal sphere into four
quadrants (orange slices) separated by the fault
and auxiliary planes.
You will now get a ping pong ball which you
will prepare as a visual aid to understand this.

Visualizing the focal sphere

You can orient your ping-pong ball to represent the

focal sphere
To visualize the focal sphere on a sheet of paper we
can imagine:
1. Looking straight down on it and drawing what we
see (upper hemisphere projection)
or
2. Using it as a stamp to make an impression of what
is on the bottom half (lower hemisphere projection)
Lower hemisphere projections are more common but
you will see both

Visualizing Focal Mechanisms

To plot a focal mechanism we use a
projection called a Wulff projection.
You will be working with these in the
exercise

Wulff Sterographic Projection - Upper Hemisphere Projection

Flip upside down

for lower
hemisphere
projection

Wulff Steronet with 2 grid

Horizontal Ray
in NE direction

Plane dipping down at 50 to

the east (upper hemisphere
projection) or down at 40 to
west (lower hemisphere
projection)

Vertical Plane
striking north
south

Vertical Ray

Ray taking-off to
SE and upwards
at 45 (upper
hemisphere
projection) or
downwards at 45
(lower
hemisphere
projection)

Strike-Slip
Focal
Mechanism

Normal Faulting

n
io

s
es
pr

s
es
pr

m
Co

m
Co

Dilatation

n
io

la
Di
n
t io
ta

Cross Section

Cross Section

Thrust (Reverse) Fault

Compression

la
Di
la
Di

n
tio
ta

n
tio
ta

m
Co
s
es
pr

Cross Section

n
io

Cross Section

Confused?
Do the lab
Lab 13. Determining a Focal Mechanisms

Background Reading
A draft primer on focal mechanism solutions for
geologists by Vince Cronin
http://serc.carleton.edu/files/NAGTWorkshops/s
tructure04/Focal_mechanism_primer.pdf