Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF MATERIALS
Mechanical Stress
Volumetric Properties
Thermal Properties
Mass Diffusion
Electrical Properties
Part 1: Density
Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Density Defined
Density
Weight per unit volume /
DensityExample
Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Thermal Expansion
Density of a material is a function of temperature
In general, density decreases with increasing
temperature
Volume per unit weight increases with increasing
temperature
Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of
temperature on density
Measured by coefficient of thermal expansion
L2 L1 = L1 (T2 T1)
L /L = T
= coefficient of thermal expansion;
L1 and L2 are lengths corresponding
respectively to temperatures T1 and T2
Thermal Stress
Shape Distortion due to non-uniform thermal expansion
Thermal induced stress
T < Tg
(Glassy State
(Brittle)
Importance of Melting
Metal casting - the metal is melted and then poured into
a mold cavity
Metals with lower melting points are generally easier to
cast
Plastic molding - melting characteristics of polymers are
important in nearly all polymer shaping processes
Part 4:
Specific Heat
Thermal Properties
Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are
thermal properties because temperature determines the
thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the changes
in materials
(
Additional thermal properties:
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
These properties relate to the storage and flow of heat
within a substance
Specific Heat
The quantity of heat energy required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of material by one
degree
H = C W (T2 T1)
H/W = C (T)
C = H/(W T) = J/g-C
H = amount of heat energy;
C = specific heat of the material;
W = weight;
(T2 T1) = change in temperature
Specific Heat
Water vs Gold
Specific Heat: Capacity to Store Heat
Specific Heat
Part 5:
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conduction - transfer of thermal energy within a
material from molecule to molecule by purely thermal motions;
no transfer of mass
Thermal conductivity of a material = capability to transfer heat
through itself by this physical mechanism
Measured by coefficient of thermal conductivity k.
Units: J/s mm C (Btu/in hr F)
Coefficient of thermal conductivity is generally high in metals,
low in ceramics and plastics
Heat Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Q
1
k ( A) ( ) ( T )
t
d
Q d 1
k ( )(
) J / s mm C
t A T
(A)
(A)
(d) (d)
(T)
Q/t)
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Heat Conductivity
Heat Conductivity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sdpcjm2vmLY
Part 6:
Mass Diffusion
Mass Diffusion
Movement of atoms or molecules within a material or
across a boundary between two materials in contact
Because of thermal agitation of the atoms in a material
(solid, liquid, or gas), atoms are continuously moving
about
In liquids and gases, where the level of thermal
agitation is high, it is a freeroaming movement
In metals, atomic motion is facilitated by vacancies
and other imperfections in the crystal structure
Figure 4.2 Mass diffusion: (a) model of atoms in two solid blocks
in contact: (1) when two pieces are first brought together, each
has its own compositions; (2) after time, an exchange of atoms
occurs; and (3) eventually, a uniform concentration occurs. The
concentration gradient dc/dx for metal A is plotted in (b).
Mass Diffusion
Part 6:
Electric Properties
Electrical Properties
Engineering materials exhibit a great variation in their
capability to conduct electricity
Flow of electrical current involves movement of charge
carriers infinitesimally small particles possessing an
electrical charge
In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
Electrical Properties
Movement of charge carriers is driven by the
presence of electric voltage
And resisted by the inherent characteristics of the
material, such as atomic structure and bonding
between atoms and molecules
Electrical Resistance
Resistance in a uniform section of material (e.g., a
wire) depends on its length L, crosssectional area
A, and resistivity of the material r
where resistivity r has units of m2/m or m
(in.)
l
R
A
A
m2
R
m
l
m
Resistivity
Property that defines a material's capability to resist
current flow
Resistivity is not a constant; it varies, as do so many
other properties, with temperature
For metals, resistivity increases with temperature
Conductivity
Often more convenient to consider a material as
conducting electrical current rather than resisting its
flow
Conductivity of a material is simply the reciprocal of
resistivity
Semiconductors
A material whose resistivity lies between insulators
and conductors
Most common semiconductor material is silicon,
largely because of its abundance in nature, relative
low cost, and ease of processing
What makes semiconductors unique is the capacity
to significantly alter conductivities in their surface
chemistries in very localized areas to fabricate
integrated circuits
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TeBX6cKKHWY
Tolerances
l A tolerance is the total amount by which a specific
dimension is permitted to vary. The tolerance is the
difference between the maximum and minimum
limits
l Variations occur in any manufacturing process, which
are manifested as variations in part size
l Tolerances are used to define the limits of the
allowed variation
Bilateral Tolerance
l Variation is permitted in
both positive and negative
directions from the
nominal dimension
l It is possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be
unbalanced; for example,
2.500 +0.010, -0.005
Unilateral Tolerance
l Variation from the
specified dimension is
permitted in only one
direction, either positive
or negative, but not both
Limit Dimensions
l Permissible variation in
a part feature size,
consisting of the
maximum and
minimum dimensions
allowed
Figure 5.1 Ways to specify tolerance limits
for a nominal dimension of 2.500:
(c) limit dimensions
Surfaces
l Nominal surface - intended surface contour of part,
defined by lines in the engineering drawing
l Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it
Part 2: Importance of
Surface Properties
Surface Technology
l Defining the characteristics of a surface
l Surface texture
l Surface integrity &
l Relationship between manufacturing processes and
characteristics of resulting surface
Part 3:
Surface Texture
Surface Roughness
Surface Texture
l The topography and geometric features of the
surface
l When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth. It has roughness, waviness,
and flaws
l It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it
Surface Integrity
l Surface integrity = surface texture + altered layer
Surface Texture
Deviations from the nominal surface of an object
(waviness)
(roughness)
(lay
pattern)
(flaw)
Figure 5.3 Surface texture features
Surface Roughness
(Roughness)
(Waviness)
(Lay pattern)
(Flaw)
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over
a specified surface length
Ra
Lm
y
dx
Lm
yi
Ra
i 1 n
l where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi =
vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by
subscript i; and n = number of deviations included in
Lm
Cutoff Length
l A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness may
get included
l To deal with this problem, a parameter called the cutoff
length is used as a filter to separate waviness from
roughness deviations
l Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface. A
sampling distance shorter than the waviness width
eliminates waviness deviations and only includes
roughness deviations
Part 4
Surface Integrity
Surface Integrity
l Surface texture alone does not completely describe a
surface
l There may be metallurgical changes in the altered layer
beneath the surface that can have a significant effect on
a materials mechanical properties
l Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer (altered layer) and the changes in it
that occur during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product
( )
Altered layer+
substrate
texture
Altered layer
l Residual Stress:
n (residual stress)
n (hot rolling)
n ,
n
n
n (global stress = 0)
n (local stress 0)
n (residual stress)
Summary
l Surface Integrity (
l
l
l Surface texture
Review
l
l
l
l
l
Chap 1
Chap 2
Chap 3
Chap 4
Chap 5
CHAP6: METALS
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Production of Steel
Nonferrous Metals
100
101
Alloys ( )
Alloy
102
Phases in a Solid
Phase
Any homogeneous mass of material
All grains have the same crystal lattice structure
(Phase) (FCC)
(Phase)
(lattice structure)
FCC BCC
, ,
(Two Phases in a Solid)
103
BCC
FCC
FCC
4 Grains
Same Lattice Structure
Same Orientation
BCC
104
2 Phases vs 14 Grains
4
5
13
6
12
14
11
10
105
Solid Solution ( )
Base Metal (Solvent)( )( )
Dissolved element: (Solute)( )( )
Substitutional ( )
Interstitial ( )
Single phase
106
Intermediate Phases
Dissolved element exceeds solubility limit
A second phase forms in the alloy
( )
(Fe + C) + (Fe3C)
(Fe3C) Cementite)
Intermediate phase
Chemical composition is intermediate
Crystalline structure
Different from those of the pure metals
Fe + C (Fe3C) ( )
110
Single vs Intermediate
Intermediate Phase
(Fe) (C)
(C)
( ): Fe3C
Fe + Fe3C ( )
111
112
113
114
Phase Diagrams
Any point in the diagram
Chemical Composition
Temperature
Phases
115
116
117
Below Solidus
A mixture of phases
Solid + Liquid (Binary Phase)
In the region bounded by the solidus and liquidus
( )
118
119
121
In-between
A mixture of the two solid phases +
(FCC + BCC)
Phase
(Lattice structure)
(Phase)
FCC ( -phase ), + BCC ( -phase)
122
123
Eutectic Alloy
Eutectic Composition
A particular composition where
Solidus and Liquidus are at the same temperature
Eutectic temperature
127
Eutectic Point (
L S1 + S2
( eutectic ):
128
Eutectic Point
129
Solder Wire
130
131
132
Austenite FCC
At 912C
Ferrite transforms to Gamma (), called Austenite (FCC)
(BCC FCC) (
Delta
Melt
Pure iron melts at 1539C
133
Austenite
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaJixHqzauU
135
Cementite (Fe3C)
an intermediate phase ( )
Metallic compound of iron and carbon
Hard and brittle
136
Phase diagram
for ironcarbon
system, up to
about 6% carbon
137
Pearlite vs Cementite
(Pearlite)
Cast iron
an ironcarbon alloy
containing from 2.1% to about 4% or 5% carbon
Alloy Steels
contain other alloying elements besides carbon
139
Eutectoid
(Eutectoid )
S S2 + S3
140
Eutectic vs Eutectoid
Eutectic composition
Eutectoid composition
Eutectic vs Eutectoid
Eutectoid
Single solid phase transforms into two other solid phases
1 Solid Phase A Solid Phase + B Solid Phase
143
144
Chap 6-B
Production of Steel
145
146
Steel making
iron is then refined to
obtain desired purity and composition (alloying)
147
Scrap iron/steel
widely used as raw materials in iron and steel making
148
149
150
Blast Furnace
151
152
Hot gases
Forced into the lower part of the chamber
Accomplish combustion and reduction of the iron
153
Blast furnace
154
Blast Furnace
155
Further refinement
required for cast iron and steel
A furnace called a cupola is commonly used for converting
pig iron into gray cast iron
For steel, compositions must be more closely controlled and
impurities brought to much lower levels
157
158
159
Slag
160
Iron-Making: Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yov7Z0rMyHI
161
162
Steel-making
Refining pig iron into steel
Two most important processes
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
Electric furnace
163
165
BOF Converter
166
167
168
BOF
(Slag)
169
Raw Materials
Scrap iron and scrap steel
Produce
Alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels
Better quality steel
Electric Arc
171
172
173
174
Steel-Making
Blast Furnace (Iron-Making)
BOF/Electric Furnace (Steel Making)
Cast Ingot/Continuous Casting (
175
176
Continuous Casting
177
Continuous Casting
178
Steel
Carbon
0.02% and 2.11% by weight
Designation
179
180
181
Steel Making-Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA&list=PLB35
94A0FAFF980DC
182
183
Non-Ferrous Materials
Mg, Cu, Al
Pb, Sn, Zn,
Ni, Ti,
Mo, W
(Bronze)
(Brass)
Molybdenum
184
Abundant on earth
Al : on land
Mg: in sea
Zinc
Low melting point
Attractive as a casting metal
especially die casting
Corrosion protection
Coated onto steel or iron
Galvanized steel: steel coated with Zn
186
Nickel (Ni)
Similar to iron in some respects:
Magnetic
187
Titanium
Abundant
1% of earth's crust
Density of Ti
between Al and Fe
Applications
Light weight
Good strengthtoweight ratio
188
Refractory Metals
Tungsten (W)
Properties
Highest melting point (3422 C)
Stiffest (highest modulus of elasticity)
Hardest of all pure metals
Applications
High operating temperatures
Filament wire in incandescent light bulbs
Electrodes for arc welding
190
Video
Copper Production: BBC
191
Chap 6: Summary
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Production of Steel
Nonferrous Metals
192
Chap 7 Ceramics
193
Part 1
Definition of Ceramics
194
Ceramic Defined
An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or
semimetal) and one or more nonmetals
Metal + Non-metal
TiC ( ), WC , Al2O3,
Semi-metal + Non-metal
SiO2 SiC, cBN (cubic BN)
195
Ceramics Examples
Silica
silicon dioxide (SiO2)
main ingredient in most glass products
Alumina
aluminum oxide (Al2O3
applications from abrasives
to artificial bones
196
197
Part 2
Properties of Ceramics
198
High hardness ( ( )
Brittle, virtually no ductility
Electrical insulating
Thermal insulating
199
200
Ceramics is Brittle
Brittle
Metallic bonding allows for slip, and could deform
plastically
Bonding in ceramics is more rigid and does not permit
slip under stress
201
202
203
204
205
Part 3
Ceramic Products
206
Ceramic Products
Clay construction products
bricks, clay pipe, and building tile
Refractory ceramics
furnace walls, crucibles, and molds
Tableware products
pottery, fine china
207
Ceramic Products
Glass (
bottles, glasses, lenses, light bulbs
Glass fibers
reinforced plastics (fiberglass)
fiber optics communications lines
208
Ceramic Products
Abrasives
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
Silicon carbide (SiC)
209
Ceramic Products
Ceramic insulators
Spark plugs,
Microelectronic chip substrates
Bioceramics
artificial teeth and bones
210
Part 4
Types of Ceramics
211
Traditional Ceramics
Based on mineral silicates ,
silica , and mineral oxides
found in nature
Primary products
Pottery, Tableware, Brick, and Tile (
Natural Abrasives
212
213
Clay
Most common clays
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
When mixed with water,
Becomes a plastic substance
Formable and moldable
When heated
to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing)
clay fuses into a dense, strong material
214
Silica (SiO2)
Low in cost
Hard, Chemically stable
Alumina (Al2O3)
Abrasive in grinding wheels (
Refractory brick in furnaces
216
217
New Ceramics
Developed synthetically
Oxides
Carbides
Nitrides
Borides
218
Oxide Ceramics
Alumina (Al2O3)
Produced synthetically
Control of particle size and impurities
strength and toughness improved
Good hot hardness
Low thermal conductivity
Good corrosion resistance
219
Oxide Ceramics
Electrical insulators
Refractory brick
Cutting tool inserts
220
Carbides
221
Carbides
WC, TiC, and TaC
High hardness and wear resistance
Cutting tools
Nitrides
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
Components for gas turbines, rocket engines, and
melting crucibles
Cubic Boron nitride (cBN),
Cutting tool material and coatings
High hardness (close to diamond)
223
224
Glass Products ( - )
Main Composition: SiO2
Applications
Window glass
Containers cups, jars, bottles
Light bulbs
Laboratory glassware glass tubing
Glass fibers insulation, fiber optics
Optical glasses - lenses
225
Ceramics
SiO2, Al2O3
SiC, WC, TaC, TiC, Cr3C2
cBN (BN), Si3N4
226
Part 5
Elements: C, B, Si
Carbon, Boron, Silicon
227
228
Graphite (
Crystalline C Layers
3000
(electrode)
Bonding between atoms in the layers
Covalent, Strong
Bonding between Parallel layers
van der Waals forces, Weak
229
230
Graphite (
Powder form
Lubricant
Fiber form
High strength structural material
Solid form
Refractory
231
Diamond
Carbon
Cubic crystalline structure
Covalent bonding between atoms
Highest in hardness
Applications
Cutting tools
Grinding wheels for machining hard, brittle materia
Diamond vs Graphite
233
Silicon Si)
Abundant elements in Earths crust, comprising
26% by weight
Si O
Hard, Brittle, Lightweight, Chemically inactive at
room temperature
Si 1414 C
(Graphite) 3652
(Sand) 1650 C
234
Silicon
SiO2 in glass
Alloying element
Pure silicon
Semiconductor manufacturing
IC produced today are made from silicon
235
Boron
Propterties
Lightweight/Stiff in fiber form
High Melting Point (2076 C)
Application (cBN)
Cubic Boron Nitride for cutting tools
236
237
Boron Fibers
Boron Fiber
Diameter: 0.14 mm
Tensile Strength: 3100 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 393 Gpa (Stiffness)
Metal: Steel
Diameter: 0.13 mm
Tensile Strength: 1000 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 206 GPa
C/B/Glass Fibers
(light weight, high strength)
Strength-to-Weight Ratio
238
Other Fibers
E-Glass Fiber
Diameter: 0.01 mm
Tensile Strength: 3,275 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 73 Gpa (Stiffness)
Carbon Fiber
Diameter: 0.01 mm
Tensile Strength: 2,750 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 240 GPa
Metal: Steel
Diameter: 0.13 mm
Tensile Strength: 1,000 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 206 GPa
239
Part 6
Composite Materials
240
Composite Materials
FRP:
Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer
Polymer
Matrix
Tough
Fiber /
High Strength
High Stiffness
Light weight
241
242
VideoCeramic Processing
Particulate Processing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cEYMuZduYdY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5VmeIunoyKw
Glass Working
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-2WO2izHSQ
243
Chap 8 POLYMERS
244
Polymer
A compound consisting of longchain
molecules
maybe thousands, even millions of units in a
single polymer molecule (
Poly Many
Meros (reduced to mer) part
Based on carbon, organic chemicals
245
Structure of Polymer
Poly-
Mer-
Polymer
246
Types of Polymers
2 Categories
Plastics
Rubbers
3 Categories:
Thermoplastic polymers (TP,
Thermosetting polymers TS,
Elastomers
247
248
249
Elastomers (rubber)
Elasticity
Extreme elastic extensibility
Some can be stretched by a factor of 10 10
Compared with TS
Share a similar molecular structure TS
Properties quite different
250
Market Shares
TP 70%
TS: 15%
Elastomers: 15%
On a volumetric basis, usage of polymers
exceeds that of metals (
251
Examples of Polymers
TP
Polyethylene (PE ) /
Polyvinylchloride (PVC )
Polypropylene (PP )
Polystyrene (PS )
PE Pellet
LDPE
HDPE
252
PE Polyethylene
(C2H2)n (Polyethylene)
C2H2 (Ethylene)
160
LDPE
HDPE
253
Polyvinylchloride (PVC
)
254
255
Polypropylene (PP )
256
Polypropylene (PP )
PP (C3H6)n
257
Polystyrene (PS
(C8H8)n
258
Polystyrene (PS
C8H8: Styrene
( )
(C8H8)n
Benzene
259
260
261
Examples of Polymers
Thermosets:
Phenolics
Silicones
Epoxies A B
Elastomers:
Natural rubber
Synthetic rubbers
262
Phenol-formaldehyde Bakelite :
TS
263
Silicone , )
TS
50 200
264
Epoxy ( ): TS
Epoxy( )
A B
AB
PCB
265
Rubber (
266
Translucent/transparent
267
268
Limitations of Polymers
Low strength relative to metals and ceramics ( )
Low modulus of elasticity (low stiffness)
Service temperatures are limited to only a few hundred
degrees
Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight and other
forms of radiation
269
Viscoelastic
(not immediate change)
(gradual change) (time lag)
VISCOELASTIC
270
Synthesis of Polymers
Nearly all are synthetic, chemical processing
271
Degree of Polymerization
Degree of polymerization (DP)
Polymer length: a statistical distribution
Mean value of polymer length for a batch
Higher DP
increases mechanical strength
increases viscosity in the fluid state, which
makes processing more difficult
273
Molecular Weight (
Molecular weight (MW)
Sum of the molecular weights of mers
n times molecular weight of each repeating unit
n
A statistical distribution
Use average value in a batch
274
DP (n)
PE
PVC
Nylon
10,000
1,500
120
MW
300,000
100,000
15,000
275
Branched structure
Chain-like but with side branches (TP)
Cross-linked structure
Loosely cross-linked (Elastomer)
Tightly cross-linked (TS)
276
Elastomer
Thermoset
280
Effect of Branching
TP
linear or branched structures
a mixture of the two
Branches
increase entanglement ( ) among the molecules
makes polymer stronger in solid state
More viscous at a given temperature in the plastic or
liquid state
281
Effect of Cross-Linking
TS
High degree of crosslinking
Hard and Brittle
Elastomers
a low degree of crosslinking
elastic and resilient ( )
Crosslinking
Chemically set
Reaction cannot be reversed
Polymer structure permanently changed
if reheated, it degrades or burns
rather than melt
282
Crystallinity in Polymers
amorphous and crystalline are possible
283
Twophase system
Randomly mixed with amorphous material
Cystallites interspersed throughout an
amorphous matrix
285
286
LDPE
HDPE
Degree of crystallinity
55%
92%
Specific gravity
0.92
0.96
Modulus of elasticity
140 MPa
(20,000 lb/in2)
700 MPa
(100,000 lb/in2)
Melting temperature
115C
135C
(239F)
(275F)
287
Additives
Properties of a polymer can be changed by combining
it with additives
Additives either alter molecular structure
288
Additives by Function
Fillers to strengthen polymer or reduce cost
Plasticizers to soften polymer and improve flow
Colorants pigments or dyes
Lubricants to reduce friction and improve flow
290
Mechanical Properties of TP
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
2-3 orders of magnitude lower than metals/ceramics
Low tensile strength
TS is about 10% of the metal
Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics
Physical Properties TP
Lower densities
Typical specific gravity for TP are 1.2
Ceramics specific gravity = 2.5
Metals specific gravity = 7.0
Higher coefficient of thermal expansion
5 times the value for metals
10 times the value for ceramics
Much lower melting temperatures
Low Thermal/Electrical conductivities
292
TP Products
TP products
molded and extruded items
fibers, films and sheets
packaging materials
Formed part
Pot handle, electrical switch cover
Becomes one large macromolecule, amorphous
294
Properties of TS
Rigid: modulus of elasticity is 2-3 times greater than TP
295
Three categories:
1. Temperatureactivated systems
2. Catalystactivated systems
3. MixingActivated Systems
Curing
. Accomplished at fabrication plants
. Rather than chemical plants that supply the
starting materials to the fabricator
296
TemperatureActivated
Curing ( is caused by heat supplied during part
shaping operation (e.g., molding)
Starting material is a linear polymer in granular form
supplied by the chemical plant (
As heat is added, the material softens for molding, but
continued heating results in crosslinking
Most common TS systems
The term thermoset" applies best to these polymers
(Curing)
297
CatalystActivated Systems
Crosslinking in these systems occurs
when small amounts of a catalyst are added to the
polymer which is in liquid form
MixingActivated
299
Applications of Epoxy
FR-4 is a grade designation assigned to glassreinforced epoxy laminate sheets, used in printed circuit
boards. "FR" stands for flame retardant
FR-4 is a composite material composed of woven
fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is
flame resistant (self-extinguishing).
300
TS vs. TP
TS plastics
Not as widely used as TP
Processing costs and complications involved in curing
Largest market share
Phenolic resin: 6% of total plastics market
PE: 35% market share
TS Products
Plywood adhesives
Paints, Molded parts
Printed circuit boards PCB
Fiber reinforced plastics
301
Elastomers
Polymers capable of large elastic deformation when
subjected to relatively low stresses
Characteristics of Elastomers
304
Synthetic Rubbers
305
Chap 8 POLYMERS
306
Chap 8-Part 2
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
307
308
310
Anisotropic
311
Synthetic
Components produced separately
Primary phase
forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is
imbedded (
Secondary phase
Imbedded phase Reinforcing agent
Strengthen the composite
In the form of fibers, particles, or various other
geometries
313
315
Reinforcing Phase
Function: Reinforce primary phase
Most common shapes:
Fibers
Particles
Flakes
Infiltrated phase (
Skeletal or porous matrix
317
Fibers
Filament form
Significantly stronger than Bulk form
Why
As diameter is reduced, material becomes oriented in the
fiber axis direction
Probability of defects in the structure decreases
significantly
318
319
Kevlar
Kevlar
320
Particles
Distribution of Particles
Random
Isotropic
Strengthening Mechanism
Depends on particle size
321
The Interface
To operate effectively, the two phases must bond
where they join at the interface
Interphase
In some cases, a third ingredient must be added to
achieve bonding of primary and secondary phases
Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be
thought of as an adhesive
323
Another Interphase
Interphase consisting of a solution of primary and
secondary phases
325
326
Carbon fiber
reinforced polymer
(
Carbon fiber (
975
327
Rule of Mixture
A
B
0.8A + 0.2 B
Fiber is Stiff but Brittle
Matrix (commonly a Polymer) is Soft but
Ductile
328
332
333
334
335
336
Matrix: Metal
Reinforcing phases
Particles of ceramic (these MMCs are commonly called
cermets)
Cermet: Ceramic Metal
Fibers of various materials: other metals, ceramics, carbon,
and boron
337
Cermets ( )
Definition
Ceramic contained in a metallic matrix
Ceramic often dominates the
mixture, sometimes up to 96% by volume
(96%)
Cemented Carbides
Carbide compounds bonded in a Metallic Matrix
Ti-Ta-W based
Cemented Carbide
339
Co-based Cemented
Carbide
Co %
341
Drawing Die
Insert
Drill Bit
Indenter
342
Torch Tip
Ni binder
343
CMCs
retain desirable properties of ceramics
compensating for their weaknesses
344
345
FiberReinforced Polymers
Polymer matrix materials:
Usually a thermosetting (TS) plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or Epoxy
Can also be thermoplastic (TP), such as nylons
(polyamides), PS, and PVC
Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as Tires and Conveyor Belts
346
Fibers in PMCs
Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous,
or woven as a fabric
Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon,
and Kevlar 49
Glass (in particular Eglass) is the most common fiber
material in today's FRPs;
Glass Fiber
iPhone-Carbon Fiber
Kevlar 29/49
347
FRP Properties
High StrengthtoWeight and ModulustoWeight ratios
Low Specific Gravity - a typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as
much as steel; Strength and Modulus are comparable in fiber
direction 1/5
Good Fatigue strength
Good Corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in
various chemicals
Low Thermal Expansion - for many FRPs, leading to good
dimensional stability
Significant anisotropy in properties
349
FRP Applications
Aerospace much of the structural weight of airplanes and
helicopters consist of advanced FRPs
Sports and recreation
Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for boat hulls
since the 1940s
Fishing rods, tennis rackets, helmets
350
352
CHAP 9: FUNDAMENTALS OF
METAL CASTING
Overview of Casting Technology
Heating and Pouring
Solidification and Cooling
353
354
Solidification Processes
Starting work material
Liquid
Highly plastic condition ( ) ( )
Created through solidification
Material processed:
Metals ( )
Ceramics, specifically glasses ( )
Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
( ) ( )
355
356
357
Casting
Molten metal flows
by gravity or other force
into a mold where it solidifies
in the shape of the mold cavity
358
Disadvantages of Casting
Different disadvantages for different casting
processes
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and Poor surface finish
for some processes; e.g., sand casting
Environmental problems
360
Small parts:
dental crowns, jewelry,
small statues, and frying pans
Foundrymen
Workers who perform casting
362
Part 3: Casting
Mold, Pattern, Cavity
363
Mold in Casting
Cavity:
Cavity whose geometry determines part shape
Slightly oversized
Actual size of cavity must be slightly oversized
Allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification
Mold materials
Sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal
364
Figure 10.2 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container
in the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which
the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity
365
Permanent mold
mold can be used many times
made of metal
366
367
368
Expendable Mold
More intricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes ( )
Part shapes in permanent mold processes are
limited by the need to open mold ( )
High Volume (
Permanent mold processes are more economic
in high production operations
369
371
372
373
Internal surface
determined by a core ( )
placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part
Cores
In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
374
Solid Making
375
Part 5: Casting
Gating System, Risers
376
Gating System
Channel
through which molten metal flows into cavity
Components
377
Riser
Reservoir
a source of liquid metal in the mold
compensate for shrinkage during solidification
Freeze
must be designed to freeze later than main casting
in order to satisfy its function
379
380
381
382
383
Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into
solid state
Solidification differs
depending on whether the metal is a pure
element or an alloy
384
385
Grain Size
Pure Element
Figure 10.6 (a) Phase diagram for a coppernickel alloy system and
(b) associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni50%Cu composition
during casting
388
Segregation Effect
Figure 10.7 Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting
389
Alloy Solidification
Chemical Composition
Not uniformly distributed
390
Part 6: Casting
Solidfication Time
391
Solidification Time
Solidification takes time
Total solidification time TST = time
required for casting to solidify after pouring
TST depends on size and shape of casting
by relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
392
n
V
T
S
C
A
Chvorinov's Rule
393
394
395
397
398
Part 7: Casting
Shrinkage Effect
399
Solidification Shrinkage
Shrinkage:
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase
has a higher density than the liquid phase
( )
Volume Reduction:
solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit
weight of metal ( )
400
Shrinkage Allowance
Oversized: Patternmakers account for solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction by making mold
cavity oversized
Allowance: Amount by which mold is made larger
relative to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
Shrink Rules: Casting dimensions are expressed linearly,
so allowances are applied accordingly
401
Wood Pattern
402
Riser
Problems
for regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first
Solution
Design Riser ( )
Molten metal is continually available from risers to prevent
shrinkage voids
403
Directional Solidification
V/A design:
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A
ratios away from riser,
so freezing occurs first in these regions
405
Riser Design
Riser is waste metal that is separated from the
casting and remelted to make more castings
Waste Minimization: To minimize waste in the
unit operation, it is desirable for the volume of
metal in the riser to be a minimum
V/A Maximization: the geometry of the riser is
normally maximum in the V/A ratio
( ) ( )
406
Review 1
Riser
Chill
Core
Pattern
Mold
Mold Cavity
Shrinkage Allowance
Properties of Mold Materials
Shrinkage Voids
407
Review
Grain Structure
Grain Size Distribution
Outer layer (grain size/shape)
Inner layer (grain size/shape)
Segregation of Alloying Components
Pure Element
Alloy
Polycrystal (many grains)
Single crystal (single grain)
408
Sand Casting
Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Foundry Practice
Casting Quality
Metals for Casting
Product Design Considerations
409
1600 C
411
414
415
The Pattern ( )
A fullsized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but
it warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
417
Core
Fullscale model of interior surfaces of part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity
and the core to form the castings external and internal surfaces
418
419
Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties capacity to endure high
temperatures
Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
1600 C
421
Drysand mold
organic binders rather than clay
mold is baked to improve strength
Skindried mold
drying mold cavity surface of a greensand mold to a depth
of 10 to 25 mm
using torches or heating lamps
423
Fb = Wm Wc
Fb = buoyancy force
Wm = weight of molten metal displaced
Wc = weight of core
424
425
Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell of sand
Held together by thermosetting resin binder
427
Disadvantages:
More expensive
Difficult for small quantities
432
Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
Vacuum Molding
Advantages:
Easy recovery of the sand, since binders not used
Disadvantages:
Slow process
Not readily adaptable to mechanization
434
435
436
437
Disadvantages:
A new pattern is needed for every casting
Economic justification of the process is highly dependent
on cost of producing patterns
442
Applications of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Expanded Polystyrene ( )(
)
Mass production of castings for automobile engines
( )
Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to
Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
Feed them to the downstream casting operation
443
444
Investment Casting
Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
450
Disadvantages:
Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet moisture
content can cause defects in product
Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to
lower melting point alloys
453
454
455
Review 1
456
Part 2
457
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
464
Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
465
Die Casting
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points
Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
474
Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the
mold is rotated at high speed so
centrifugal force distributes molten metal to
outer regions of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
475
476
477
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
478
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation
Molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force
479
Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping
spout near base
Used only for cast irons, and although other
furnaces are also used, largest tonnage of cast iron
is melted in cupolas
The charge, consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola
481
482
Crucible Furnaces
(Cupola)
( )
Direct Fuel Furnace BOF
Crucible
484
485
ElectricArc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
High power consumption, but electricarc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
Used primarily for melting steel
486
Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil
to develop magnetic field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
489
Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
twoman ladle
490
Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment
491
Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, partingline
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
492
Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as
the binder deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either
manually or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving
bonding agent
493
Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: airblasting with coarse sand
grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting, whereas in many permanent mold
processes, this step can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
494
Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
495
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things
to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting
in quality defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
Defects common to all casting processes
Defects related to sand casting process
496
Misrun
497
Cold Shut
498
Cold Shot
Metal spatters during pouring and solid
globules form and become entrapped in casting
499
Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
500
Sand Blow
Balloonshaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring
501
Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
502
Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or sand core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal
503
Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
504
507
508
Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign
513
Review 2
Machine allowance
Fluidity
Furnace
Cupola
Crucible
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Cold chamber
Hot Chamber
515
Centrifugal Casting
Semi-centrifugal Casting (
Centrifuge Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Curing Process
Curing Process
Thermosetting Polymers
The curing process transforms the
resin into aplasticorrubberby a
cross-linkingprocess.