Department of Civil Engineering

UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

Lecture Notes
CEWB322 Hydrology

Dr. Mohd Aminur Rashid bin Mohd Amiruddin

Arumugam
E-mail: aminur@uniten.edu.my
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ir. Lariyah Mohd Sidek
E-mail: lariyah@uniten.edu.my

Department of Civil Engineering

UNITEN

Chapter 1
Introduction
Hydrologic Cycle
Systems Concept
Hydrologic System Model

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
COURSE OUTCOMES
The role of water in the global ecosystem
Where the worlds water supply is stored
The pathways of moisture in the hydrologic
cycle
The fate of precipitation on the land
How groundwater moves in rocks beneath the
earths surface
Mans impact on ground water: depletion and
pollution

WHAT IS HYDROLOGY?
From a Greek word hydro means
water and logy means study
Hydrology is a discipline of water
It covers a lot of scope:
Ground water, surface water and
water in atmosphere
Measure character, quantity, quality
and distribution
Hydrological cycle happen
continuously
Hydrological study is important to
manage water resource

Interesting Facts
There are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of water on
earth.
3% of the earths water is fresh. of the fresh water
is frozen in glaciers and ice caps.
A person takes 60,600L of water in his lifetime.
An average person in US uses 260L of water/day
(Malaysian: 150L/day).
Industry uses more water than any other material.
Every glass of water you drink contains molecules of
water used countless times before.

Hydrology

Hydrology is the science of water.

It is the study of the occurrence, character,
and movement of water within and
between the physical and biological
components of the environment.
The practical application of hydrology is
called Applied Hydrology.

Applied Hydrology
Applied Hydrology are found in such tasks as
Design and operation of hydraulic
structures.
Water supply
Wastewater treatment and disposal
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydropower generation
Flood control

Applied Hydrology
Navigation
Erosion and sediment control
Salinity control
Pollution abatement
Recreation use of water
Fish and wildlife protection

Role of Applied Hydrology

The role of applied hydrology is
to help these tasks
to provide guidance for planning and
management of water resource

Introduction
Earth is called the blue planet. Why?
Seventy percent (70%) of the earths
surface is oceans - the hydrosphere.
The hydrosphere connects with the
three other spheres.

The Worlds Water Supply

Water Takes Three Different Forms

Water = Liquid Form
Ice = Solid Form
Water Vapor = Gas Form

The Hydrologic Cycle

What is the driving force behind the
hydrologic cycle?
- Solar Energy
Gravity helps keep water moving.
Water circulates between the:
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere

Hydrologic Cycle
15 km Hydrosphere
1 km

Lithosphere

Earth

Water on earth exists :

in a space called Hydrosphere
(15 km up into the
atmosphere)
in the crust of the earth (1 km
down into the Lithosphere)

Water circulates in the hydrosphere through

the maze of paths constituting the Hydrologic
Cycle

Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle is the central
focus of hydrology.
The cycle has no beginning or end.
Its processes occur continuously.

Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic
Cycle
Hydrologic
cycle

Atmospheric Subsystem

Surface Subsystem

Groundwater Subsystem

Hydrologic Cycle

96.5% of all the earths water is in the ocean

1.7% of all the earths water is in
the groundwater.
1.7% of all the earths water is in
the polar ices.

0.1% of all the earths water is in the surface

and atmospheric water system.

Estimated
world water

Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic cycle with global annual average water
balance.

Average Water Balance in 1978

Hydrologic Cycle

Average Water Balance in 2005

Hydrologic Cycle

100%

Global annual
water balance

61%

39%

Climate

Annual Rainfall
: 3,000 mm
Temperature
: 210C - 32 0c
Relative Humidity
: 80 %
Open Water Evaporation : 1600 mm - 1800 mm

Introduction
Water is abundant
Not well managed
shortage during
drought and excess
during wet season
Johannesburg 2002
World Summit agree
to:

Develop IWRM and water

efficiency plan
Reverse current trend in
water resources
degradation

Average Annual Rainfall (mm)

Monsoonal and Convective Rainfall Patterns

PERLIS

Kelantan

600
THAILAND

500

KEDAH

Monsoon

mm

400
300
200
100

KELANTAN

TERENGGANU0

PERAK

PAHANG

SELANGOR

Selangor

mm
600
500

NEGERI
SEMBILAN

Convective

400
300

MELAKA

200

JOHOR

100
0
1

5 6
Month

10 11 12
SINGAPORE

6 7 8
Month

10 11 12

Flood prone areas 29,720 km

(9% nations land area)
PERLIS
Kangar
THAILAND
PULAU
LANGKAWI
KEDAH
Alor Setar

S.Kelantan
Kota Bharu

S.Muda
George Town

PULAU
PINANG

S.Terengganu
Kuala Terengganu

KELANTAN

TERENGGANU

PERAK

S.Dungun

Ipoh
S.Cukai
S.Perak

PAHANG

S.Bernam

Kot a Ki nabal u

Kuantan
S.Kuantan

S. Ki nabat angan

S.Pahang

SABAH
LABUAN

SELANGOR
Shah
Alam
Kuala
S.Klang
Lumpur

NEGERI
SEMBILAN

S.Rompin
S.Endau

S. Baram

Seremban

S.Linggi
MELAKA
S.Melaka
Melaka
S.Muar

JOHOR

S.Batu Pahat

Johor
S.Benut Bahru
S.Johor

SINGAPORE

SARAW
AK
S. Rej ang

S. Sar awak
Kuci ng
S. Sadong

Water Balance In Malaysia

Rainfall intensity = 990 bil. m3
360 bil m3 evoprate to atmosphere as a vapour
566 bil m3 as a surface runoff
64 bil m3 as a ground water
Dam/catchments = 25 bil m3

Climate Change Impact

Even if the world maintained the pace of the 1990s in water supply development,
it would not be enough to ensure that everyone had access to safe drinkning
water by 2025. (PICC, UNEP)

Climate Change Impact

One study suggests that although global water conditions may

worsen by 2025 due to population pressure, climate change could
have a net positive impact on global water resources (PICC, UNEP)

Climate Change Impact Malaysia

More rainfall
More floods?

(Source: Nahrim 2006)

Definition Hydrologic Processes

The physical processes responsible for the
movement of water through the different
phases of the hydrologic cycle.
At small space and time scales, these
processes can be accurately represented by
mathematical-physical equations, but at the
scales of most interest in engineering
hydrology, a degree of simplification and
conceptualisation is always involved in their
description and modelling.

Hydrologic Processes - Precipitation

Precipitation is the major input into most
hydrologic systems. It may be in the form of rain,
snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew or frost. For
Malaysia, the majority of the precipitation is in
the form of rain, and the term rainfall is thus
often used synonymously with precipitation.
Most rainfall results from distinct storms; these
are meteorological events that may last from
several minutes to several days.
Channel Precipitation is that precipitation
falling directly on the water surface of streams
and lakes.

Hydrologic Processes - Interception

Interception is that part of precipitation
that falls directly on trees, shrubs, grass,
or other objects and does not reach the
ground. It is temporarily retained in the
interception store and eventually
evaporated.

Hydrologic Processes Depression

storage
Depression Storage (or Surface Retention) is the
water retained (ponded) in depressions on the surface
of the catchment.
The depressions may range from small surface
features like hoof marks to puddles, ponds and lakes.
The larger depressions will not only store the
precipitation falling directly onto them, but also some
of the overland flow from areas located above them.
Some of the stored water infiltrates into the soil, the
remainder is gradually evaporated.

Hydrologic Processes Surface

Runoff
Surface Runoff is the water that flows over the
ground surface into streams.
It results from the excess of precipitation over
infiltration, the rainfall excess, which is initially
stored on the catchment surface and in depression
storage, then runs off as sheet or overland flow,
and eventually collects in small drainage lines and
streams to move to the catchment outlet.
Surface runoff contributes the major portion of
streamflow after a storm event and thus is the
component of principal interest in many
engineering studies.

 Hydrologic Processes - Infiltration

Infiltration is the water that soaks into the surface of the
soil.
The infiltration capacity, the maximum rate at which water
can infiltrate into a given soil at a given time, depends on
the soil physical properties and the depth of water that has
already infiltrated.
The actual rate of infiltration depends also on the rainfall
intensity or the depth of water ponded on the catchment
surface.
For impervious catchment surfaces, such as paved areas,
the infiltration capacity is so small that it can be neglected,
but for highly pervious surfaces, such as sands or lateritic
soils, most of the precipitation on the land surface may be
lost to infiltration.

(A) Cover and Storage

of a Natural
Watershed
(B) Cover and Storage
of an Urbanized
Watershed
(C) Flood Frequency
Curves for Natural
and Urbanized
Watershed
(D) Hydrographs for
Natural and
Urbanized
Watershed
35

Changes in Hydrology and Runoff Due to

36

Hydrologic Processes Soil Moisture

Soil Moisture is the water contained in the soil above the water table. It
is depleted by evaporation from the ground surface and by transpiration
through vegetation.
The availability of soil moisture plays a key role in supporting natural
vegetation and agricultural crops.
The amount of useful soil water varies between the wilting point (the
lowest soil moisture content beyond which plant roots can no longer
extract water from the soil) and field capacity (the maximum amount of
water a soil can hold against the action of gravity).

Interflow (or sub-surface storm flow) is water that percolates in a nearly

horizontal direction through the soil and seeps out into stream channels
relatively quickly during or shortly after a storm period, without having
reached the ground water reservoir.

Percolation is the movement of water (particularly in the vertical

direction) under hydrostatic pressure through rock or soil, excluding
turbulent flow through large openings (macropores).

Hydrologic Processes -Groundwater

Groundwater is the water contained in saturated soil
(i.e. below the water table). The total volume of
groundwater storage may be very large compared to
the other components of the water balance.
Groundwater flow, in general terms, is the flow within,
between or from groundwater systems.
Baseflow is a general term for that portion of the
streamflow that seeps into the stream channels from
below the ground surface.
Mostly, it is taken to include both groundwater flow and
interflow, but sometimes is used to mean only
groundwater flow, i.e. the outflow from the groundwater
store to streams that may continue for several months
after a storm event, and that is thus responsible for the
dry-weather flow in streams.

Hydrologic Processes - Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is vaporised and

diffuses into the atmosphere. The process of evaporation is driven by
heat energy and depends on the amount of net radiation from the sun. It
thus varies seasonally and with the temperature regime of a location.
The rate of evaporation also depends on the ability of the surrounding
air to absorb extra moisture, and aerodynamic factors (such as wind
speed) are important.
The term potential evaporation describes the maximum rate of
evaporation that is possible given an unlimited supply of water (e.g. from
an open water surface); in many situations the available supply limits the
actual evaporation to a smaller amount.
Transpiration is the process whereby vegetation extracts moisture from
the soil, passes it through the plant and evaporates it into the
atmosphere through the leaves. The rate of transpiration is determined
by similar factors as evaporation, plus vegetation characteristics, such
as wind resistance and total leaf area.
Evapotranspiration is the total evaporative loss from soil and
vegetation to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. In
modern usage, the term "evaporation" is often applied to mean
evapotranspiration.

Definition - Water Balance

The fundamental law of hydrology, known in
other physical sciences as the continuity
equation or the principle of conservation of
mass.
It states that, over a given time period, the total
inflows to a hydrologic system must equal the total
outflows from it, minus the change in volume of
water stored within the system.
The water balance equation can be applied to
hydrologic systems of any scale and for time
periods ranging from seconds to many years.

THE WATER BALANCE EQUATION

The term "water balance" implies a statement of the principle of
conservation of mass of water in a hydrologic system, e.g. a
catchment. Essentially, for a defined time period:
Inflow to catchment - outflow from catchment = increase of
storage on catchment
To apply this principle in a particular case, it is necessary to:
Step 1
1. Define the boundaries of the catchment system
In plan, this is defined by the ridges and lines of steepest slope to
the catchment "outlet" (gauging station). Vertically the outer or upper
surfaces of the ground, vegetation, and buildings form a suitable
upper boundary, while the bedrock often defines a suitable lower
boundary. See Figure 2.4. This definition implies that the catchment
includes the groundwater system. The lower boundary of the soil
moisture zone (shown by a broken line) thus forms an internal
boundary within the system. In other cases, the lower boundary may
be taken such as to include the part of the soil moisture zone where
soil moisture is accessible to vegetation. The definition of the
catchment system boundaries determines which inflow and outflow
terms are relevant to the water balance of the catchment.

Catchment system boundaries,

inputs and outputs
P

E
E

SS
Catchment
Boundary

Ig

Ssm

Is

SG
Q

Qg

Catchment system boundaries,

inputs and outputs
Step 2
2. Identify and evaluate all forms of water inflow
to and outflow from the defined catchment; for
example, for the system defined in Figure 2.4:
Inflows - Rainfall P ;
Surface inflow Is and
Subsurface inflow Ig
Outflows - Evapotranspiration E ; Subsurface
outflow Qg ;Streamflow Q and Diversions D

Catchment system boundaries,

inputs and outputs
Step 3
3. Identify all forms of storage in the catchment and estimate
the changes in their contents over the selected time
increment. For example:

Surface storage Ss (e.g. lakes, channels, vegetation)

Soil Moisture storage Ssm

Groundwater storage Sg
For the above inputs, outputs, and storages, the water balance
equation for a time interval t is:
P + Is + Ig - Q - E - D - Qg = Ss + Ssm + Sg
Inflow

Outflow

Increase in Storage

(2.1)

Example 1
Estimate the residence time of global
atmospheric moisture.
S
Tr
Q

Tr = Residence time (the average duration for a

water molecule to pass through a subsystem of
the hydrologic cycle).
S = Volume of water
Q = Flow rate

S 12,900 km3 Table

km3
Table
Q 458,800 119,000
yr

km3
577,000
yr
S 12,900 (km3)
Tr
0.033 yr 8.2 days
3
Q 577,000 (km / yr)

EXAMPLE 1.1
The storage in a river reach at a particular time is 20 x 10 3 m3.
At that time, the recorded inflow and outflow of the reach are 10.0 m 3/s and 15.0 m 3/s
respectively.
An hour later the inflow is 15.0 m 3 /s and the outflow is 16.0 m 3/s.
Calculate the change of storage and the new storage of the reach at the end of one hour.
Solution
11 = 10.0 m 3/s ; 12 = 15.0 m 3/s
01 = 15.0 m 3/s ; 02 =16.0 m 3/s
S1 = 20 x 103 m3 ; t = 1 hour= 3600 s
Rearranging equation (1.2) gives;
S = { ( I1 + I2)/2 (01 + 02)/2} t
= {(10.0 + 15.0)/2 (15.0 + 16.0)/2}3600
= 10,800 m 3
The new storage, S2 = S1 + S
= 20000 10800
= 9200 m3

Example 1.2
A lake had a water surface elevation of 100.0 m above datum at a beginning of a certain month.
In that month, the lake received an average inflow of 5.0 m 3/s from surface runoff sources. In the
same period, the outflow from the lake had an average value of 5.5 m 3/s.
Further in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 135 mm and the evaporation from the lake
surface was estimated to be 60 mm.
The average surface area of the lake was 45 km 2.
Write the water budget equation for the lake and calculate the new water surface elevation of the
lake at the end of the month.
Solution :
_
In a time period, t , the water budget equation of the lake is ;
S /t =I O
where t = 1 month = 1 x 30 x 24 x 3600 = 2.592 x 10 6 s
I=5.0 x2.592x106=12.96x 106 m3
0=5.5x2.592x106=14.26x 106 m3
Surface area of lake, A = 45 km2 = 45 x 106 m2
Inflow from precipitation (rainfall), P x A = 0.135 x 45 x 10 6
= 6.75 x 106 m3
Outflow from evaporation, E x A = 0.06 x 45 x 10 6 = 2.7 x 106 m3
Total Inflow = (12.96 + 6.75) x 106 m3 = 19.71 x 106 m3
Total Outflow = (14.26 + 2.7) x 106 m3 = 16.96 1 x 106 m3
Change in storage, S = Total Inflow Total Outflow
= (19.7116.96) x 106 m3
= 2.75 x 106 m3
Change in elevation, Z = S / A = 2.75 x 10 6 / 45 x 106 = 0.061 m
Therefore, new water surface elevation at the end of the month is ;
= 100.000 + 0.061
= 100.061 m

Systems Concept
Global hydrologic cycle is
represented in a simplified
way by means of The
System Concept
Most hydrologic system is
inherently random, because
their major input is
precipitation, a highly
variable and unpredictable
phenomena.
The statistical analysis plays
a large role in hydrologic
analysis.

Block diagram
representation of the
global hydrologic

Example 2
Represent the storm rainfall-runoff process
on a watershed as a hydrologic system.
Inpu
t

A watershed is the area of

land draining into a stream
at a given location.

Output

A Watershed as a Hydrologic

The watershed divide is a

line dividing land whose
drainage flows toward the
given stream from land
whose drainage flows away
from that stream.

Basic Equation of Hydrologic Cycle

Input
(Rainfall)

Process
(Basin)

Output
(Runoff)

Simple Hydrologic System Model

Unsteady Flow Equation ; I-Q=dS/dt
I = Input (volume/time)
O= Output (volume/time)
dS/dt = Time rate of change of storage

Basic Equation of Hydrologic Cycle

P=Precipitation
E=Evaporation
T=Transpiration
R=Surface Runoff
G=Groundwater Flow
Rg=Subsurface Flow
I=Infiltration
S=Storage
s=Land Surface
g=Groundwater

Basic Equation of Hydrologic Cycle

Water Budget in Land Surface
(P+R1+Rg)-(R2+Es+Ts+I)=Ss
(1)
Water Budget in Groundwater
(I+G1)-(G2+Rg+Eg+Tg)=Sg
(2)
R (NetP-(R2-R1)-(Es+Eg)-(Ts+Tg)-(G2-G1)=
Surface Flow)=R2-R1
E (Net Evaporation)
=E2+E1
Ss+Sg
*
T (Net Transpiration)=Ts+Tg
G (Net Groundwater Flow)=G2-G1
S= Ss+Sg

P-R-E-T-G=S