Genetics and

Heredity

Define the terms.

Heredity:- Transmission of characters
from one generation to next generation.
Variation:- The difference between
parents and offsprings ,among
offsprings of same parents and among
the individuals of the same species.
Genetics:- The branch of biology which
deals with heredity and variation.

History
Gregor Mendel is considered The Father
of Genetics
The term genetics was coined by William
Bateson.
Mendel performed experiments on
garden pea plant and proposed postulates
called Mendels laws of inheritance.

Gregor Mendel
Austrian Monk born on July 22...(1822)
Experimented with pea plants.
Used pea plants because: Annual plant
Small herbaceous plant.
Varieties of contrasting characters.
Easy artificial cross and produce fertile
offspring's.
Flowers are large enough for easy
emasculation.

Mendelian Genetics
Gene- specific segment of DNA which determine the
character of an organism.
Dominant traits- traits that are expressed.
Recessive traits- traits that are covered up.
Alleles- the different forms of a characteristic.
Punnett Squares- show how crosses are made.
Probability- the chances/ percentages that something
will occur.
Genotype-the genetic constitution of an organism.
Phenotype- External apperance of organism.
Homozygous- two of the same alleles.(TT,tt)
Heterozygous- two different alleles. (Tt)

Mendelian Genetics
Monohybrid cross :- A cross between two pure
parents differing in one pair of contrasting characters
Dihybrid cross:- A cross between two pure parents
differing in two pairs of contrasting character
F1 generation:- Hybrid individuals obtain by a corss
between two pure parents.
F2 generation:- Generation of offsprings obtain by
selfing of F1 individuals .

For each monohybrid cross, Mendel cross-fertilized true-breeding plants that

were different in just one characterin this case, flower color. He then allowed
the hybrids (the F1 generation) to self-fertilize.

Typical breeding experiment

P generation (parental
generation)
F1 generation (first filial
generation, the word filial
from the Latin word for
"son") are the hybrid
offspring.
Allowing these F1
hybrids to self-pollinate
produces:
F2 generation (second
filial generation).

It is the analysis of this

that lead to an
understanding of genetic
crosses.

Statistics indicated
a pattern.

Mendels laws of
inheritance
1.Law of Dominance
2.Law of segregation
3.Law of independent
assortment.

1.Law of Dominance
It states that "In a cross between two
homozygous organisms differing in a
single pair of contrasting character, the
character which is expressed if the F1
generation is called dominant character
and the character which is suppressed is
called a s recessive character.
E.g. Tallness
Dominant
character
Dwarfness
recessive
character

Law of Dominance
In the monohybrid cross (mating of two organisms that differ in only one
character), one version disappeared.

What happens when the F1s are crossed?

Law of Dominance States

Hybrids will always show the dominant
phenotype.
Ex: PP = purple

pp = white

Pp = purple

2.Law of segregation
It states that When the two alleles for
contrasting character are brought together in
a hybrid ,they do not mix or contaminate but
segregate or separate out from each other
during gamete formation.

The F1 crossed
produced the F2
generation and the
lost trait appeared
with predictable
ratios.

This led to the

formulation of the
current model of
inheritance.

Law of independent
assortment
It states that When two parents differing
from each other in two or more pairs of
contrasting characters are crossed ,then
the inheritance of one pair of contrasting
character is independent of the other pair
of character.

Explanation of independent assortment.

Back cross
The cross between F1 hybrid and any
one of the parents .

Significance of back cross

It is rapid method of improving crop
variety
Helps to verify laws of inheritance.
Continuous backcross never
produces recessive character ,hence
recessive traits. can be eliminated
from the progeny.

Test cross
The cross between F1 hybrid and
recessive parent .

Significance of test cross

Helps to determine whether the individual
exhibiting dominant character is
genotypically homozygous or
heterozygous.
Purity of the parents can be determined
It can determine the genotype of the
individual.
Wide application in plant breeding system.

Test cross is a back cross but back

cross is not a test cross
It is because ; In backcross F1 generation
can be crossed with either dominant or
recessive parent .but in test cross F1
generation is crossed with recessive
parent only.

Deviation from Mendelian

Laws
There are certain deviations on
Mendelian principle as they don't follow
Mendels ratio.
These discoveries are known as PostMendelian genetics or Neo-Mendelian
genetics.

Gene interaction
Interaction between allelic or nonallelic
genes of the same genotype in the
production of particular phenotypic
character.
Types: Intragenic (interallelic)
Intergenic (nonallelic)

Intragenic:- Occurs between alleles of

same gene .
E.g. Incomplete dominance
co-dominance.
Multiple alleles.
Intergenic:- Occurs between the alleles of
different gene on the same chromosome
or different chromosome.
E.g. Pleiotropy,
polygenes,epistasis,complementary
genes, supplementary genes.

Incomplete dominance:-

Both the genes of an allelomorphic pair

express themselves partially.
One gene canot supress the expression
of other completely.
So there is no dominant and
recessive ..in such cases intermediates
are formed in F1 hybrids.

E.g. 4 o clock plant

Co-dominance
Both the genes of an allelomorphic pair
express themselves equally in F1
hybrid.
The alleles which are able to express
themselves independently even if
present together in a hybrid is called as
co dominant alleles.

Phenotype
genotype

Red (RR)

White(WW)

P generation

Roan
RW

Gametes

RR

Roan
RW

RW

RW WW

F2 generation
Phenotypic ratio: 1:2:1

Genotypic ratio :1:2:1

Multiple Alleles
have 3 or more alleles for the same
gene (or at a single locus)
In Other Words there are 3 or more
alleles that create the different traits.
at most one individual will have 2 alleles
or 1 pair (unit factors exist in pairs.)
in a species, however, many alternative
forms exist

Drosophila
Phenotype

Genotype

Normal wings

Vg+

Nicked wings

vgni

Notched wings

vgno

Strap wings

vgst

Vestigial wings

vg

Example ABO Blood Group

this deals with the presence of antigens
These are like labels/ name tags on the
blood cells.

Each individual has 1 of 4 phenotypes

Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O

Gene designated is I (isoagglutinogen

IA= A antigen
IB = B antigen
i = no antigen

Pleiotropy
When a single gene controls two or
more different traits ,is called
pleiotropic gene.
This phenomenon is called as
pleiotropy.
The ratio is 2:1 instead of 3:1

What is Sickle Cell Anemia?

A serious condition in which red blood
cells can become sickle-shaped
Normal red blood cells are smooth and
round. They move easily through blood
vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the
body.
Sickle-shaped cells dont move easily
through blood. Theyre stiff and sticky
and tend to form clumps and get stuck in
blood vessels.
The clumps of sickle cell block blood
flow in the blood vessels that lead to the
limbs and organs. Blocked blood vessel
can cause pain, serious infection, and
organ damage.

Explanation.
Sickel cell anaemia caused by a gene Hbs.
Normal healthy gene Hba is dominant.
The carriers heterozygote (Hbs / Hba ) shows mild anaemia
as in absence of oxygen the RBCs become half moon shaped.
The homozygous with recessive gene (Hbs/ Hbs) dies of fatal
anaemia.
Thus sickle cell anaemia is lethal ---------Homozygous (Hbs/

Hbs)

Sickle cell trait---------------Heterozygous.( Hbs / Hba )

A marriage between two

carriers .
Parents Sickle cell carrier X Sickle cell carrier
(Hbs / HbA )
(Hbs / HbA )
Gametes

Hbs HbA

Hb Hb
A

carrier

Hbs HbA

Hb / Hb
Sickle cell
dies.
s

Ratio =

HbA
HbS
carrier

2:1

HbA HbA
Normal

Polygenic inheritance
When any one character is determined
by two or more gene pairs , they have
additive or cumulative effect.
These genes are called as polygenes or
multiple factors.
Ratio is 1: 4: 6:4:1.

 Phenotype
Genotype
Gametes
A
B
AABB
Darkest red

Red kernels
(AABB)

X white kernels
(aabb)
ab

AB
A
b

AaBb (medium red)

AABb
Dark

a
B

AaBB
Dark

a
b

AaBb
Medium

AABb
Dark

Aabb
Medium

AaBb
Medium

Aabb
Light

AaBB
Dark

AaBb
Medium

aaBB
Medium

aaBb
Light

AaBb
Medium

Aa bb
light

aaBb
light

aabb
White

Wheat kernel colour

F2 generation:

The darkest red________ 1/16

Medium red___________ 4/16

intermediate red_______ 6/16

Light red ______________ 4/16

White ________________ 1/16

 If 4 dominant gens ______ darkest red

If 3 dominant genes _______ Dark

If 2 dominat genes _________

Medium
If 1 dominant gene ______ light.

Assignment -1
Q1. give graphic representation of Dihybrid
cross?
Q2. Why law of segregation is universally
applicable.Explain?
Q3.Write the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance.
Q4.Write a note on pleiotropy.
Q5. What is test cross? Significance of test
cross?