Early Western Civilization

Early Roman Empire

Introduction
The consolidation of state power in the hands of
Octavian (Augustus) brought an end to the Roman
Republic for all practical purposes
Although his successors would continue to maintain the
formal offices of the Republic for some time,
collaborative government had ended
For the first two hundred years of its existence, the
Mediterranean world enjoyed a Pax Romana (Roman
Peace) as the Empire created generally stable
conditions under which commerce and culture thrived
At the same time, the Empire was threatened by the
occasional eccentricities of its rulers as well as the
increasing intrusion of the military into politics

Reign of
Augustus
(31 B.C.-14 A.D.)

Restoration of the Republic

(27 B.C.)

Senate bestows title of Augustus (revered one)

on Octavian (27 B.C.)
Augustus assumes title Princeps (first citizen)
and the system of rule Augustus established is
known as the principate
Old Republican offices are retained but real
power is exercised by Augustus as princeps
and the Senate (but mostly by Augustus)
Each year until 23 B.C. Augustus is elected
consul

Restoration of the Republic

(27 B.C.)
In 23 B.C. Augustus gives up consulship but is
granted maius imperium (greater imperium than
all others)
From 23 B.C. Augustus also held the powers of
a Tribune of the Plebs
Since power was concentrated in hands of
Augustus, importance of popular assemblies
declined
Augustus popularity rooted in his maintenance
of peace after a century of civil wars in Rome

Roman Army

Augustus maintenance of the peace was backed by the

army
Twenty five legions of 5,400 men during his rule (for a total
of about 135,000 men); the term of service was 20 years
Only citizens could serve as legionaries
Other subject peoples could serve in auxiliary forces
(probably numbering about 130,000)
Augustus established Praetorian Guard (personal
bodyguard) of 9,000 elite soldiers in Rome; later the
Praetorian Guard would exercise a political role in
acclaiming and deposing emperors
One title indicating the military office of the princeps was
imperator; this is the title emperor but it was not the
common title for the Roman rulers until the reign of
Vespasian (69-79)

Provinces

Roman provinces were divided among those

technically subject to the senate and those subject to
the princeps
In practice, the princeps dominated the administration
of both
The quality of administration of the provinces improved
during the principate as Augustus established salaried
positions for provincial governors and officials; the prior
system had not included salaried officers so many
administrators had enriched themselves through
corruption and plundering the provinces they were
supposed to rule

Provinces

In the East, Augustus created a number of client

kingdoms that were technically independent but in
reality subject to Rome; this brought local elites into
the Roman system and made administration cheaper
than it otherwise might have been
In the West, Augustus pushed Roman legions into
Germany in an attempt to conquer the vast territory
until three of his legions under the command of
General Varus were massacred in the Teutoberg
Forest in 9 A.D.
After Teutoberg, Augustus established the Rhine River
and the Danube River as the European frontiers of the
empire and encouraged his successors not to expand
it further

Augustan Society

Augustan Society was divided into the senatorial,

equestrian and lower classes
Senators filled all the important office of government
and were required to possess property in excess of
one million sesterces (a Roman legionary received 900
sesterces a year)
Equestrians were allowed to serve in some lesser
government offices and were required to possess
property in excess of 400,000 sesterces
The lower classes were effectively excluded from
power but were distracted with bread and circuses

Augustuss Social Reforms

Augustus favored the restoration of traditional

religious values as underpinning his
government and rebuilt old temples and
restored traditional priesthoods that had been
neglected
He announced the deification of Julius Caesar
and permitted the building of temples to Roma,
the personification of the Roman State
This foreshadowed the establishment of a cult
of emperor worship

Augustuss Social Reforms

Augustus would be deified following his

own death
Augustus promoted social legislation that
aimed to establish traditional Roman
family values forbidding adultery,
encouraging large families, and taxing
bachelors and widowers.
Expenditures for feasts were limited

Early Empire

Julio-Claudians (14-68)

Tiberius (14-37)
Gaius (Caligula) (37-41):

Claudius (41-54)

Became convinced of his own divinity

after suffering a stroke
Supposedly assassinated after
attempting to appoint a favorite horse
as consul
Suffered from some form of speech
impediment
Arguably the most competent of the
Julio-Claudians
Added Britain as a Roman province

Nero (54-68)

Tiberius

Gaius
(Caligula)
(37-41)
Became convinced of
his own divinity after
suffering a stroke
Supposedly
assassinated after
attempting to appoint a
favorite horse as
consul

Claudius (41-54)
Claudius
Suffered from
some form of
speech
impediment
Arguably the
most competent
of the JulioClaudians
Added Britain as
a Roman
province

Suetonius (70-140 A.D.):

Lives of the 12 Caesars
Author of sensational history detailing the
personal lives of the Roman Emperors
The 12 Caesars detailed the rule of the
Empire from Julius Caesar (technically
not an emperor) to Domitian

Suetonius: The Reign of Nero

(54-68)

Nero

Having gained some knowledge of music in

addition to the rest of his early education, as
soon as he became emperor he sent for
Terpnus, the greatest master of the lyre in those
days, and after listening to him sing after dinner
for many successive days until late at night, he
little by little began to practise himself,
neglecting none of the exercises which artists of
that kind are in the habit of following, to
preserve or strengthen their voices. For he used
to lie upon his back and hold a leaden plate on
his chest, purge himself by the syringe and by
vomiting, and deny himself fruits and all foods
injurious to the voice. Finally encouraged by his
progress, although his voice was weak and
husky, he began to long to appear on the stage,
and every now and then in the presence of his
intimate friends he would quote a Greek proverb
meaning "Hidden music counts for nothing."

Suetonius: The Reign of Nero

And he made his dbut at Naples, where he did not cease singing
until he had finished the number which he had begun, even though
the theatre was shaken by a sudden earthquake shock. In the same
city he sang frequently and for several days. Even when he took a
short time to rest his voice, he could not keep out of sight but went
to the theatre after bathing and dined in the orchestra with the
people all about him, promising them in Greek, that when he had
wetted his whistle a bit, he would ring out something good and loud.
He was greatly taken too with the rhythmic applause of some
Alexandrians, who had flocked to Naples from a fleet that had lately
arrived, and summoned more men from Alexandria. Not content with
that, he selected some young men of the order of knights and more
than five thousand sturdy young commoners, to be divided into
groups and learn the Alexandrian styles of applause (they called
them "the bees," "the roof-tiles," and "the bricks"), and to ply them
vigorously whenever he sang. These men were noticeable for their
thick hair and fine apparel; their left hands were bare and without
rings, and the leaders were paid four hundred thousand sesterces
each.

Suetonius: The Reign of Nero

[Eventually, Neros misrule led to his
downfall. As those conspiring against him
closed in on him, he arranged for one of
his servants to assist him in thrusting a
dagger in his neck. Among his last
words:] "What an artist the world is losing!"

Suetonius: The Fall of the JulioClaudian Dynasty

The race of the Caesars ended with Nero. That this would be so
was shown by many portents and especially by two very significant
ones. Years before, as Livia was returning to her estate near Veii,
immediately after her marriage with Augustus, an eagle which flew
by dropped into her lap a white hen, holding in its beak a sprig of
laurel, just as the eagle had carried it off. Livia resolved to rear the
fowl and plant the sprig, whereupon such a great brood of chickens
was hatched that to this day the villa is called Ad Gallinas, and such
a grove of laurel sprang up, that the Caesars gathered their laurels
from it when they were going to celebrate triumphs. Moreover it was
the habit of those who triumphed to plant other branches at once in
that same place, and it was observed that just before the death of
each of them the tree which he had planted withered. Now in Nero's
last year the whole grove died from the root up, as well as all the
hens. Furthermore, when shortly afterwards the temple of the
Caesars was struck by lightning, the heads fell from all the statues
at the same time, and his sceptre, too, was dashed from the hand of
Augustus.

Early Empire

Year of the Four Emperors

(69)
Flavians (69-96)

Vespasian (69-79):

Titus (79-81)

Competent ruler who helped the

Empire recover after the fall of
the Julio-Claudians
Responsible for the destruction
of Jerusalem following the
Jewish revolt

Domitian (81-96)

Paranoid, delusional rule ended

the Flavian dynasty

Vespasian

Early Empire

Five Good Emperors (96-180)

Ruled the Roman Empire at its

territorial height

Hadrian (117-138)

Trajan

Nerva (96-98)
Trajan (98-117)

The Five Good Emperors all

(except the last) adopted their heirs
whom they selected based upon
their capabilities

Constructed a wall across the

northern frontier of Britain to defend
against barbarian raids

Antoninus Pius (138-161)

Marcus Aurelius (161-180)

Philosopher emperor whose

Meditations survive as evidence of
his commitment to virtuous rule

Marcus
Aurelius

Peak of the Roman Empire

Caracalla grants Roman citizenship to all

free inhabitants of the Empire (212 A.D.)
Accelerating cultural division of the
Mediterranean:
Latin language dominant in the West
Greek language dominant in the East

Roman Legions promote Romanization

Military colonies
Legions increased to 30 in reign of Trajan

Peak of the Roman Empire

Senators increasingly come from the provinces, and

not just Italy
Upper classes throughout the Empire are Romanized
by 200 A.D. although the lower classes may not have
been
Romanization most advanced in the West where there
was little civilized development before Rome
Roman civilization focused on urban life and cities
were called into being wherever they did not yet exist
in the Empire
Trade and manufacturing thrived during the Pax
Romana (Roman Peace) including long distance trade
with China over the Silk Road

Bread and Circuses

Free grain distributed to the

poor in Rome by importing
vast quantities from Egypt
and Africa
Games conducted during
frequent public holidays
(about 100 per year) and
featured chariot races, animal
hunts and gladiatorial combat
Most gladiators were slaves
but a few were free citizens
who participated willingly
In theory gladiatorial contests
were held in honor of a god,
but they were more important
as a distraction for the Roman
populace

Colosseum

Conclusions
The first two hundred years of the Roman Empire are
sometimes referred to as the Pax Romana (Roman
Peace), a period of time when the Mediterranean
enjoyed generally stable conditions under which
commerce and culture thrived
During these years, most Roman Emperors continued to
respect the form of Republican government even though
all power was effectively vested in their hands
During the third century A.D., the Pax Romana would
come to a halt as the Roman legions became deeply
involved in politics and invaders from outside of the
Empire threatened its stability.